Изменяющаяся консонантная система современного английского языка

Introduction
Chapter I. The Development of Consonant System of English Language
1.1. Consonants in Old English Period
1.1.1. Voiced Fricatives
1.1.2. Loss of Consonants in Some Positions
1.1.3. Palatalization of Back Consonants
1.1.4. Simplifying the initial consonant groups
1.2. Consonants in Middle English Period
1.2.1. The Complete Formation of Sibilants
1.2.2. Development of New Consonant Phonemes
1.3. Consonants in New English Period
1.3.1. Vocalization of the Consonant [r]
1.3.2. Simplification of Consonant Groups
1.3.3. Formation of new sibilants
1.3.4. Unvoiced Fricative Voicing in Unstressed Syllables
Chapter II. Changes in Consonant System of Modern English Language (Auditor’s Analysis)
Conclusion
Bibliography

Изменяющаяся консонантная система современного английского языка

Stice > stitch
Cirice > church
Cyse > cheese
If the front vowel is not a native, and has appeared as a result of palatal mutation, it could not affect the neighbor consonant in softening manner: [k] remains solid, and velar affricate is not passed. Velar [k] remains unchanged until now:
kin (kin) > OE cynn > kuni (race)
keen (sharp) > OE cēne > cōni (bold)
The emergence of new phoneme is reflected in the spelling. Since 13 century new sound was represented by digraph ch.
The combination gj gave a long interdental [g'] (written in Old English as cჳ). This sound is transferred to the affricate [ʤ] simultaneously with the transition [k] to [t∫]. For example:
Brugio > brycჳ > OE bridge (bridge)
wagjaჳ > wecჳ> ME wedge (wedge)
In the transitional period between Old and Middle English period there appeared the following changes: combination [sk] simultaneously with the transition [k] to [t∫] changed to [∫], ex.:
OE fisk > ME fish (fish)
OE sceorte > ME sherte (shirt)
OE sceacan > ME shaken (to shake)
OE scēap > ME sheap (sheep)
Because of incompleteness of this process the phoneme [∫] even in the early Middle English period was sometimes depicted as the combination of letters sch, later established to write sh. As a result of palatalization, the consonantal system of English phonemes in the end of the Old period was expanded to the phonemes [t ∫], [ʤ], [∫] and was remarkably enriched.
1.1.4. Simplifying the initial consonant groups
Combination of [hl], [hn], [hr] at the beginning of a word to 11 century lose their initial [h], becoming a regular sonorant. For example:
8-11 centuries
hringring (ring)
hnutunute (nut)
hlūdlūd (loud)
However, in combination [hw] initial [h] is stored in the form of aspiration. This combination of Middle English period is written wh, for example:
Hwæt > what
Hwīt > whīt (white)
It should be noted that in these examples there is a so-called metathesis (in this case - written). Normally we can observe cases of metathesis, and when the sounds and their corresponding letters are swapped. Often, this process captures the sound of r and the preceding or following vowel:
Þridda > þirda (third)
Rinnen > irnan, iernan (to run)
Brid > bird (bird)
Āscian > āxian (to ask)
Wascan > waxan (wax) [Alimardanov, 2009].
The mentioned changes have proved that the consonantal system of Old English has been changed much compared to the initial Proto-Germanic and Gothic languages which are considered to be the base languages for the English one. The described modifications of consonants have been determined by extralinguistic events like invasions of different tribes on the territory of the Britain which representatives easily merged with the natives and initiated development of so-called another English.
1.2. Consonants in Middle English Period
The linguistic shifts in English following the Norman invasion produced what is now referred to as Middle English, with Geoffrey Chaucer's The Canterbury Tales being the best known work.
Throughout all this period Latin in some form was the lingua franca of European intellectual life, first the Medieval Latin of the Christian Church, but later the humanist Renaissance Latin, and those that wrote or copied texts in Latin commonly coined new terms from Latin to refer to things or concepts for which there was no existing native English word.
1.2.1. The Complete Formation of Sibilants
The process of transition of interdental consonants to sibilants, which had begun in the Old English, has finally finished.
Palatalized («soft») [k'] has evolved into affricate [ʧ], denoted in written form as digraph ch. In the north, under the influence of Scandinavian dialects, in which there were not phenomena of assibilation (transition to the sibilants), sound [k] remained: Mycel > mikel; cirice > kirk.
Combination of consonants sc [sk'] assibilated and passed into the fricative [∫], denoted in written form as digraph sh, sch (see above).
Double consonant (geminata) cჳ assibilated and goes into hard affricate [ʤ]. French g [ʒ], entering the English language with words joy, just, viage (NE voyage) and other, stores for a while pronunciation [ʒ], and then goes into hard affricate [ʤ] [Vasilyev, 1970].
Thus, the system is supplemented by two consonants affricate [ʧ] and [ʤ]. Formed affricates were supplemented in 13-15 centuries by similar sounds from the French borrowings.
1.2.2. Development of New Consonant Phonemes
Middle English was marked with the development of new consonants as a result of changes which had been initiated in Old English like in the case when voiced v coming from the deaf allophone f became voiced in intervocalic position. A big role in the development of the voiced [v] as an independent phoneme, played the French borrowings, starting with v: veyn, verray and others.
It should be noted that the sounds of the French language which were not typical to English pronunciation, had gradually assimilated.
At the same time in this period the phoneme [x] and its interdental variant disappeared in the late 14th – early 15th centuries.
For example:
right [rix't] > [ri:t]
night [nix't] > [ni:t]
light [lix't] > [li:t]
As a result of falling [x] fore lingual vowel [i] is extended to [i:], which was subsequently transformed into [aɪ].
However, this loss did not take place if [x] was the last sound in the word and before it was labial [u]:
coughen [kouxen] > cough [koux] > [ko:f]
laughen [lauxen] > laugh [laux] > [la:f]
rough [ru:x] > rough [ru:f] > [ruf] > [răf] [Leontyeva, 2002].
Thus, having observed the historical development of English consonants in Old and Middle period, the following conclusions might be done:
The phonetic system of Old English preserved in general the Common Germanic structure of sounds. Main phonetic features of Germanic languages – Grimm's Law and Verner's Law – are clearly seen in Old English, as well as many processes which took part among vowels and diphthongs. However, Old English is sometimes moving further in developing the phonetics, and that is why some of its models are a bit hard to trace back to the Common Germanic period.
As a whole, Old English phonetics included the majority of sounds typical for all Germanic languages; and only some of its phonemes are unique and require a special acquaintance.
Consonants were subjected to several kinds of mutations which may be accumulated as follows:
1. Voicing of fricative sounds (h, f, s, þ) appears, if a fricative is surrounded by vowels.
2. Palatalization.
3. Other changes:
any velar cons.+ t > -ht-:  sócte > sóhte
any labial cons.+ t > -ft-:  sceapt > sceaft
any dental cons.+t > -ss-:  witte > wisse
n was lost before h, f, s, p: bronhte > bróhte, sonfte > sófte
Certainly there were other changes as well, but they are not so important to determine changes of English consonantal system which was further simplified in Middle English period.
1.3. Consonants in New English Period
New English, which was marked by the works of William Shakespeare and the King James Bible, is generally dated from about 1550, and when the United Kingdom became a colonial power, English served as the lingua franca of the colonies of the British Empire. In the post-colonial period, some of the newly created nations which had multiple indigenous languages opted to continue using English as the lingua franca to avoid the political difficulties inherent in promoting any one indigenous language above the others.
As a result of the growth of the British Empire, English was adopted in North America, India, Africa, Australia and many other regions, a trend extended with the emergence of the United States as a superpower in the mid-20th century. The expansion of English was accompanied with some slight changes of consonants having determined the present day’s system of consonants.
1.3.1. Vocalization of the Consonant [r]
In the 17th – 18th centuries a transition of the consonant [r] in a vowel, which interacts with the preceding vowel, or causes the formation of a long vowel or forms diphthong.
bark [bark] > bark [ba:k]
turn [turn] > turn [t∂:n]
port [port] > port [po:t]
care [kε:r] > care [kε∂]
here [hi:r] > here [hi∂]
Vocalization [r] took place after a vowel in the final position, or before another consonant. In the U.S.A. [r] does not vocalize, hence the present-day words hard, port [hard], [port] and others.
1.3.2. Simplification of Consonant Groups
In the 16th c. consonants [b] and [n] after the [m] disappeared in the absolute end of a word.
mb > m: climben [klimb∂n] > climb [klaim]
mn > m: autumne [o:tumn] > [o:t∂m]
Simplification of certain groups of consonants occurred in the middle and at the end of words.
stl > sl: bustlen [bustl∂n] > bustle [basl]
stn > sn: fastnen [fastn∂n] > fasten [fa:sn]
skl > sl: muscle [muskl] > muscle [masl]
ftn > fn: often [oftn] > often [ofn]
Simplification of the initial group of consonants [kn], [gn], [wr] occurred gradually due to assimilation and initial sounds [k], [g], [w], followed by the sounds [n] and [r].
knyf [kni:f] > knife [naif]
knowen [know∂n] > know [nou]
gnat [gnat] > gnat [næt]
gnome [gnom∂ ] > gnome [noum]
writen [wri:t∂n] > write [rait]
wrong [wroŋ] > wrong [roŋ]
1.3.3. Formation of new sibilants
During the 17th century the formation of new sibilants was completed, it began in the 15th century. Its essence is assimilation of alveolar consonants t, d, s, z, followed by j predominantly in an unstressed position. As a result, the following sibilant consonants appeared: ∫, ʧ, t ∫, ʤ.
s + j > ∫
ME translacyoun [transla`sjou:n] > NE translation [tr∂ ns`lei∫n]
ME sure [sju:r] > NE sure [∫u∂]
z + j > ʒ: decision, collision
ME pleasure [pl∂`zju:r] > NE pleasure [`pleӡ∂]
Until now, [ʒ] had a very low functional load. Its only position is intervocalic position between the transparent and sonant. In the initial and final positions [ʒ] is found only in borrowed, not yet assimilated words. For example:
jalousie [ʒa:lu`zi:], beige [be:ʒ].
t + j > t∫
ME aventure [av∂n`tju:r] > NE adventure [∂d`ven t∫∂]
ME lecture [lek`tju:r] > NE lecture [`lek t∫∂]
d + j > ʤ
ME souldiour [ sou `dju:r] > NE soldier [`soulʤ∂]
The overall result of assibilation is strengthening of functional loading of sibilants. Compare such examples from modern speech: I want you to …[ai`wont∫ju:t∂], would you … [`wuʤu…] [Androsova, 2003].
1.3.4. Unvoiced Fricative Voicing in Unstressed Syllables
These changes concerned several consonant pairs alternations:
f > v:
preposition of > [∂v] in unstressed position, should be noted that the pronunciation of the preposition off has not changed since it is always under stress.
captif > captive [`k∂ptiv], motif > motive [`moutiv]
s > z:
was [was] > [waz] > [woz]; foxes [foksis] > [foksiz]
[Θ] > [ð]:
the [Θe] > [ðe]; this [Θis] > [ðis]; with [wiΘ] > [wið]
Modern significant words (nouns, adjectives, verbs, numerals) starting with the sound [Θ], keep it, because they are always under stress in a sentence: thought, thick, to thank, three.