лексико-фразеологические характеристик политического дискурса (на основе материала речей Дэвида Кемерона)

Although the political discourse is taken into account as neither a proper study of popular culture, nor a form of aesthetic fit for analysis, nor does it generate expert vocabulary appropriate for semantic analysis, but an elusive mixture of all. It is considered as an essential cultural heritage, letting readers, listeners or viewers develop their local and national identifications, change or enforce their political views, consider global and international relations without any ideological bias.
Although this is certainly true in many respects, each political discourse participant is no passive transmitter of political ideas of his or her own.
David Cameron’s official speeches like everybody else’s may be far from objectivity as he is trying to reach his targets.
All his official poli ...

Introduction 3
Chapter I. Political Discourse Specifics 7
1.1. Concept ‘Discourse’ 7
1.2. Stylistic Features of Political Discourse 22
1.2.1. Cognitive Models of Argumentation typical for Political Discourse 26
1.2.2. Political Discourse Connotation 32
Summary of Chapter I 38
Chapter II. Lexical and Phraseological Peculiarities of Political Discourse 40
2.1. Political Discourse Terms 40
2.2. Political Discourse Realia 42
2.3. Idiomatic and Non-idiomatic Units in Political Discourse 44
Summary of Chapter II 57
Глава III. Lexical and Phraseological Specifics of David Cameron’s Speeches 58
3.1. Terms and Realia Used by David Cameron 58
3.2. Epithets typical for David Cameron’s speeches 68
3.3. Metaphors and Similes Preferred by David Cameron 74
3.4. Clichés and Phraseological Units in David Cameron’s Speeches 84
Summary of Chapter III 94
Conclusion 96
Bibliography 99
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIVE MATERIAL 105

All the political issues of mass media are characterized not only by words they consist of but also by means of a wide range of phraseological units and fixed phrases. In case of the intercultural dialogue we see in the political discourse which is at a loss use of different languages as a communication medium. It is very difficult to find an equivalent to one or another phraseological unit and this or that fixed phrase \ collocation, because every language has its own cultural traditions making people use a wide range of phraseological units and fixed phrases, which can be used by the politicians and reporters to persuade other political discourse participants.
The same slices of a political realia, the same concepts have different varieties in the forms of words and phraseological unit s in different languages, which are more or less full of some connotation and implicit references, to some extent specific.
Each nation’s conscious and subconscious perception of the existing political realia is quite important in the political discourse, as the speaker’s self-identification is based on some specific words, non-idiomatic fixed phrases and phraseological units they consist of.
The practice of language communication shows that a language is not a mechanical appendage of the concrete culture as in this case it could not be used in numerous situations of intercultural dialogue resulting in exchange of a number of words, non-idiomatic fixed phrases and phraseological units of the political discourse as it is. The linguistic relativity would limit potential features of a language to the frameworks of the culture. Actually one of the major properties of the language is its universality allowing native politicians to use his or her mother tongue as a means of dialogue in all potentially possible situations of the political discourse communications, including communication with representatives of other cultures.
Language and culture should be considered as parts of the whole (language and culture should be considered as parts of the whole). Each language idiomatic and non-idiomatic vocabulary should be apprehended as a component of the culture and as a culture tool. However, a language at the same time is independent in relation to the culture in whole, and it can be considered as an independent semiotics system prone to this or that type of discourse.
The problem of mutual relation of language and culture traditionally has been in sphere of interests of linguists investigating the political discourse. However, in the recent decades the concept ‘political discourse’ gets an increasingly wider interpretation due to the growing interest to each word, fixed phrase and phraseological unit connotation and implicit meaning [Алефиренко 2012: 23].
The object of the research is lexical and phraseological peculiarities of the political discourse in English.
The urgency of the present research is determined by the general orientation of the political discourse on persuasion, which makes intercultural communication tremendously difficult and can lead to communication failures.
So, as to provide the theoretical basis required to concern a number of the political discourse views, pragmatic specifics, its functional style distinctive features, stylistic and semantic categories of expressivity, evaluation and emotionality, use of various tropes we refer to the latest linguistic theories developed by such researchers as N.D. Arutunova [Арутюнова 2003], O.I. Vorobyova [Воробьёва 1999], A.P. Chudinov [Чудинов 2006], I.M. Salnikova [Сальникова 2013], A. Heinonen [Heinonen 1999], M. Pärl-Lõhmus [Pärl-Lõhmus 1997] and many others.
The objective of our research is analysis of the English political discourse, study of idiomatic and non-idiomatic vocabulary which is characteristic for this type of discourse, description of differences in the structure and implicit motivation. Therefore, we are taking into consideration the following tasks:
to characterize the concepts “discourse” and “political discourse” paying attention to the style, connotation and cognitive models of argumentation,
to describe political discourse terms, realia, idiomatic and non-idiomatic units,
to outline some distinctive features of David Cameron’s speeches,
to analyze the specificity of political terms, realia, epithets, similes, metaphors, idiomatic and non-idiomatic units he prefers.
The URGENCY is explained by the profound interest to the English political discourse idiomatic and non-idiomatic specifics.
The scientific novelty of the research is defined by the concrete result of the English political discourse investigation that can be useful for some forthcoming studies.
The methods of investigations used in this research are:
• the descriptive method;
• the method of classification;
• the comparative method;
• the method of semantic analysis.
The theoretical significance of the research is motivated by the necessity to depict and analyze the English political discourse idiomatic and non-idiomatic vocabulary.
The practical significance of the research is defined by the results of the study, which can help to understand the distinctive features of lexical and phraseological peculiarities of the political discourse in English.
The present research consists of Introduction, Chapter I “Political Discourse Specifics”, chapter II “Lexical and Phraseological Peculiarities of Political Discourse”, chapter III “Lexical and Phraseological Peculiarities of David Cameron’s Speeches Analyzed”, Conclusion and Bibliography.
In the Chapter I we analyze the concepts “discourse” and “political discourse”.
In the Chapter II we characterize specific features of terms, realia, idiomatic and non-idiomatic units, which tend to be frequently used in the English political discourse.
In the Chapter III we study David Cameron’s speeches.
The Bibliography contains 95 items.

2) глубокий (=серьезный, основательный) [54];
deep discount - глубокий / значительный дисконт, существенная скидка;
deep discount securities - ценные бумаги с существенным дисконтом;
deep gain – глубокий / весомый/ существенный;
deep in the money - опцион с огромным выигрышем;
deep out of the money - опцион с огромным проигрышем
deep pocket – «глубокий карман» / богатство, состоятельность [Мюллер 2013].
Since explicit meaning of the metaphore “deep” can be expressed by means of a great many collocations they are not taken into account as phraseological units or idioms.
But as the time goes on some of these terminological fixed phrases may become a part of phraseology.
There are a number of computer and economics terms which are counted as idioms:
Trojan horse - "Троянский конь" (разновидность компьютерного вируса, маскирующаяся под обычное ПО (например, часто использующуюся утилиту));
bull seller - спекулянт, играющий на повышении;
at a discount - ниже номинальной стоимости, со скидкой;
at all costs (at all costs (at any cost)) - любой ценой, во что бы то ни стало, чего бы это ни стоило; любыми средствами;
above price (above (beyond или without) price) - бесценный, цены нет;
at any price - любой ценой, во что бы то ни стало;
a knock-down price (a knock-down (или rock-bottom) price) - самая низкая, бросовая цена;
pay a heavy price for smth. (pay a heavy (или high) price for smth.) - заплатить высокую цену за что-то, дорого заплатить за что-то, поплатиться за что-то;
upset price - низшая начальная цена (на аукционе) [Мюллер 2013].
The fact that those terminological fixed phrases are considered as idioms can be explicated by their expressive idiomatic meaning and growing popularity among ordinary people, who are not aware of a lot of economics terms.
Quite a lot of fixed phrases consisting of two nouns as the times goes on change their spelling features. They may be both considered as fixed phrases and single words due to their variable spelling opportunities.
Top coat \ topcoat = пальто
Top shelf \ top-shelf \top shelf = высшего качества
Top secret \ top-secret \ top secret = совершенно секретный [Мюллер 2013]…
Phrasal verbs or a phrases that consist of a verb plus an adverbial or prepositional particle, especially those the meaning of which cannot be deduced by analysis of the meaning of the constituents, which tend to be idiomatic mostly, are commonly considered to be single words, although they consist of two parts (verb + adverb, preposition or particle) [Зыкова 2015: 66].
This tendency is connected with their conversion into a noun or an adjective, which is highly regular and frequent [Коряжкина 2013: 87].
take over
1) to assume the control or management of
2) (printing) to move (copy) to the next line [Collins 2006]
takeover
1) a) the act of seizing or assuming power, control, etc
b) (as modifier) takeover bid
2) (sport) another word for changeover [Collins 2006]
beat up
1) избивать; обходиться со зверской жестокостью
2) пытаться получить (что-то), завладеть (чем-то) путём шумной рекламы
3) продвигаться против ветра, против течения
4) вербовать (рекрутов) [Мюллер 2013]
beat-up - видавший виды; потрёпанный, побитый, полуразвалившийся; поношенный [Мюллер 2013].
Besides, considering phrasal verbs as idioms, would have made dictionaries of idioms / phraseological units about three or four times bigger.
Lots of phrasal verbs are highly idiomatic.
rabbit 1) а) кролик \ any of various common gregarious burrowing leporid mammals
2) а) трус б) слабый игрок; начинающий, новичок \ a novice or poor performer at a game or sport [Мюллер 2013]
rabbit on - разглагольствовать, распространяться (на какую-то тему) \ talk inconsequentially; chatter
I suppose her mother is still rabbiting on as usual. — Я думаю, её мать опять долго беседует, как обычно. [Мюллер 2013]
The meaning of this phrasal verb is semantically derived from the metaphorical meaning of the noun “начинающий, новичок”
But we should consider them as single words because of the opportunity to express the same or similar meaning by means of an ordinary verb.
pick = pick off
pick = pick out [Collins 2006].
Such a term as idiomatical phrase / idiom / phraseological unit denoting a specific type of fixed phrases was introduced by Russian linguists long ago and is generally applied in our country, whose language has absolutely different idioms, their semantics and structure distinguished from English ones due to their cultural traditions [Телия 1990: 559].
It is commonly considered that unlike components of free word combinations which may vary depending on the needs of communication, words that make up idioms are reproduced as unchangeable collocations, although they may be variable as well [Буянова 2013:56].
read someone’s thoughts \ read someone’s mind - читать мысли других людей [Мюллер 2013]
Even nowadays, however, there is a certain divergence of views as to the binding feature of phraseological units differentiated to other fixed phrases or collocations and the nature of word combinations that can be rightly termed as phraseological units [Алефиренко 2008: 12].
This problem seems to be rather complex and may be mostly accounted for by the fact that the difference between free or variable word groups and idioms can not be clearly defined since both of them may be both highly idiomatic and a bit idiomatic. When looking at phraseological units we can see that such a class of them as idiomatic collocations are highly idiomatic [Алефиренко 2008: 19].
Lots of English-speaking politicians have invented numerous phraseological units in the course of their daily speech making, few of them tend to survive later on.
Oliver Cromwell's famous address to Sir Peter Lely to paint his portrait "warts and all" has become a contemporary phraseological unit denoting “with all blemishes evident”. It may n be translated in Russian as “со всеми изъянами и недостатками; как есть; без прикрас” [Кунин 2005].
Benjamin Disraeli once told a conference that he was "on the side of the angels."
This phrase is now considered to be a phraseological unit denoting “быть высоконравственным человеком, вести добродетельную жизнь” [Кунин 2005].
Sir Winston Churchill invented such phraseological units as "the iron curtain" denoting “железный занавес, политические и идеологические барьеры (между странами)”, and " be a sheep in sheep's clothing" opposed to The New Testament idiom “be a wolf in sheep's clothing” (= be a hypocrite or to be dangerous although masquerading as something harmless) [Seidl 1992].
In America Theodore Roosevelt created such an oft-quoted idiom or phraseological unit as "big stick" denoting “политика "большой дубинки", политика силы” when using in his speech such an old African proverb as “Speak softly and carry a big stick and you will go far” [Кунин 2005].
Two phrases attributed to Harry S. Truman, another US president are "if one can't stand the heat one should stay out of the kitchen" and "the buck stops here." The latter one is traditionally interpreted as “the ultimate responsibility lies here” [Seidl 1992] or “больше уже не на кого сваливать ответственность; другого козла отпущения не найдёте” [Кунин 2005].
Another well-known political metaphorically motivated idiom is "the cold war" (=a state of political hostility and military tension between two countries or power blocs, involving propaganda, subversion, threats, economic sanctions, and other measures short of open warfare, especially that between the American and Soviet blocs after World War II) [Seidl 1992]. It seems to be used first in 1947 by such an American politician as B. Baruch, who said “Let us not be deceived - we are today in the midst of a cold war” then [Fowler 1991: 78].
The word “war” used in this idiom can be found in many other political discourse phraseological units:
carry the war into the enemy's camp / carry the war into Africa = переходить в наступление; предъявлять встречное требование, отвечать обвинением на обвинение;
private war = длительная (наследственная) вражда; кровная месть;
phony war = "странная война" (период затишья во Второй мировой войне с сентября 1939 г. по май 1940 г. на Западном фронте);
a war of nerves = "война нервов", психологическая война;
a war of words = словесная война;
the wars of the Roses война Алой и Белой розы (длительная междоусобная война в Англии в XV в. между династиями Ланкастеров и Йорков);
a war to death (a war to the death (или to the knife)) война на истребление; борьба не на жизнь, а на смерть, непримиримая вражда [Кунин 2005]…
The latter political idiom is of Spanish origin (guerra al cuchillo = war to the knife) [Seidl 1992].
So we see most idioms or phraseological units are used in the English political discourse to make it more expressive and implicit, to encourage listeners, readers or views to develop their own points of view concerning some particular politician or policy.
Summary of Chapter II
The English political discourse is connected with history and culture. It is based on a great number of political terms and realia, either linked e with the UK or USA or many other countries of the world. Some if them are implicit and expressive enough to be considered as idiomatic phrases or phraseological units as well.
Some political terms and realia are highly emotional and expressive, therefore they have their presentation non only by words but fixed phrases as well, some of which may be idiomatic enough.
As we can see the problem of distinguishing idiomatic and non-idiomatic fixed phrases seems to be rather complex, because both of them can be highly expressive and idiomatic.
To our mind, we should consider political idioms /idiomatic phrases /phraseological units as a class of fixed phrases since their variety is highly limited.
Chapter III. Lexical and Phraseological Specifics of David Cameron’s Speeches Analyzed
3.1. Terms and Realia Used by David Cameron
When looking through a few of David Cameron’s official speeches dating back to 2006-2016 we found a great number of political terms and realia. Let us consider them one by one.
The British people have voted to leave the European Union, and their will must be respected. [David Cameron’s Speech After ‘Brexit’ Vote 2016]
The key factor making David Cameron mention this or that political term or realia is discussion whether this or that political organization is efficient enough, whether the UK should join or go out of this or that political organization.
He uses such a piece of political realia as “the European Union”, since he considers leaving the European Union a great step made by him and other politicians holding the same views.
You are the greatest team a Prime Minister could ever have. [David Cameron. Leader's speech, Manchester 2015]
Over here David Cameron mentions such a piece of political realia as “Prime Minister” referring the head of a parliamentary government.
The Conservatives, winning across Wales; on the march in the Midlands.
 Bolton West, Derby North, Berwick, Wells – Conservative once more…
 …Gower for the first time ever.
The North, more Tory; the South, the East, almost a clean sweep…
 …and Cornwall – that wonderful county – 100 per cent Conservative. [David Cameron. Leader's speech, Manchester 2015]
There are quite a lot of political realia connected with British history and culture in this fragment of his speech. They are Wales (a principality that is part of the United Kingdom, in the west of Great Britain), the Midlands (the central counties of England, including Northamptonshire, Warwickshire, Leicestershire, Nottinghamshire, Staffordshire, Derbyshire, the former West Midlands metropolitan county, and Worcestershire: characterized by manufacturing industries), (a town in NW England, in Bolton unitary authority, Greater Manchester: centre of the woollen trade since the 14th century; later important for cotton), Derby (an annual horse race run at Epsom Downs, Surrey, since 1780: one of the English flat-racing classics), Berwick (a former county of Scotland), Wells (a city in SW England, in Somerset), the Gower (a peninsula in S Wales, in Swansea county on the Bristol Channel). These are geographical realia.
He uses political realia as well. They are Conservatives (in Britain, Canada, and elsewhere - supporters or members of a Conservative Party), Tory (a member or supporter of the Conservative Party in Great Britain or Canada).
I love our get-up-and-go; that whenever we’re down, we’re never out.
 I love our character; our decency; our sense of humour.
 I love every part of our country. England, Scotland, Wales, Northern Ireland – we are one nation and I will defend our Union with everything I have got. [David Cameron. Leader's speech, Manchester 2015]
Over here David Cameron mentions such geographical realia as England (the largest division of Great Britain, bordering on Scotland and Wales), Scotland (a country that is part of the United Kingdom, occupying the north of Great Britain), Wales (a principality that is part of the United Kingdom, in the west of Great Britain), Northern Ireland (that part of the United Kingdom occupying the NE part of Ireland: separated from the rest of Ireland, which became independent in law in 1920; it remained part of the United Kingdom, with a separate Parliament (Stormont), inaugurated in 1921, and limited self-government), the Union (the union of England and Wales from 1543, the union of the English and Scottish crowns (1603-1707), the union of England and Scotland from 1707, the political union of Great Britain and Ireland (1801-1920), the union of Great Britain and Northern Ireland from 1920).
He uses such a neologism as “get-up-and-go” referring to energy, drive, or ambition of everyone in all these parts of the UK.
No other party made that commitment.
Not Labour. Not the Liberal Democrats. Just us – the Conservatives [David Cameron. Leader's speech, Birmingham 2012]
There are quite a great number of political realia connected with British history and political activity therein right now in this fragment of his speech. They are Labour (a British political party, formed in 1900 as an amalgam of various trade unions and socialist groups, generally supporting the interests of organized labour and advocating democratic socialism and social equality), Liberal Democrats (a political party with centrist policies; established in 1988 as the Social and Liberal Democrats when the Liberal Party merged with the Social Democratic Party; renamed Liberal Democrats in 1989 in Britain), Conservatives (members of the major right-wing party, which developed from the Tories in the 1830s in Britain).
The time has come to go back to first principles; to have a real national debate and ask some fundamental, searching questions about working-age welfare. [David Cameron. "Speech on welfare", Bluewater, Kent 2012]
Over here David Cameron mentions such political terms as national debate (a formal discussion, as in a legislative body, in which opposing arguments are put forward everywhere in the country), working-age welfare (financial and other assistance given to working-age people in need).
It’s what the Deputy Prime Minister has rightly called the poverty plus a pound approach: push people one pound over the poverty line and consider the job done. [David Cameron. "Speech on welfare", Bluewater, Kent 2012]
There is a piece of political realia connected with British history and political activity therein right now in this fragment of his speech. It is Deputy Prime Minister (a person appointed to act on behalf of or represent the Prime Minister).
There is a piece of financial realia connected with British currency. It is pound (the standard monetary unit of the United Kingdom, the Channel Islands, the Isle of Man, and various UK overseas territories, divided into 100 pence).
There is a social term as well. It is poverty line (=черта / порог бедности).
As Iain Duncan Smith has argued so powerfully, that might look good on the government spreadsheet but it means next to nothing on the ground. [David Cameron. "Speech on welfare", Bluewater, Kent 2012]
Over here David Cameron mentions such a political term as government spreadsheet (a computer program that allows easy entry and manipulation of figures, equations, and text, used by the government for financial planning and budgeting).
It’s great to be here and to have this opportunity to come together today to mark the end of this very special 400th anniversary year for the King James Bible. [David Cameron. "King James Bible" speech, Oxford 2011]
There is a piece of cultural and religious realia connected with British national consciousness. It is the King James Bible (the Authorized Version an English translation of the Bible published in 1611 under James I).
Like Shakespeare, the King James translation dates from a period when the written word was intended to be read aloud. [David Cameron. "King James Bible" speech, Oxford 2011]
Over here David Cameron mentions such a piece of cultural realia as Shakespeare [William Shakespeare, 1564-1616] connected with a great number of other cultural realia as the "Arden Shakespeare" (a long-running (1899 – 1924) series of scholarly editions of the works of William Shakespeare), Shakespeare Festival it originated from the theatre company functioning out of Stratford-upon-Avon in the late XIX century), Shakespeare Memorial Theatre (a 1,040+ seat thrust stage theatre owned by the Royal Shakespeare Company dedicated to the English playwright and poet William Shakespeare, located in the town of Stratford-upon-Avon) and many others.
Much of that dissemination has come through our literature, through the great speeches we remember and the art and music we still enjoy today. From Milton to Morrison……and Coleridge to Cormac McCarthy…[David Cameron. "King James Bible" speech, Oxford 2011]
There are many other cultural realia connected with British national belletristic literature. They are Milton (an English poet, polemicist, man of letters, and civil servant for the Commonwealth of England under Oliver Cromwell (1608 –1674)), Morrison (an American songwriter, singer, and poet, best remembered as the lead singer of The Doors (1943 –1971)), Coleridge (an English poet, literary critic and philosopher, a founder of the Romantic Movement in England (1772 –1834)), Cormac McCarthy (an American novelist, playwright, and screenwriter (born in 1933)).
And if they happen to know that I’m setting out my views today in a former home of the current Archbishop of Canterbury…[David Cameron. "King James Bible" speech, Oxford 2011]
Over here David Cameron mentions such a piece of cultural realia as Archbishop of Canterbury (Canterbury (a city in SE England, in E Kent) bishop of the highest rank).
From human rights and equality to our constitutional monarchy and parliamentary democracy… David Cameron. "King James Bible" speech, Oxford 2011]
Here are many other political terms vital for every Brit. They are constitutional monarchy (a monarchy governed according to a constitution that limits and defines the powers of the sovereign), parliamentary (of or characteristic of a parliament or Parliament) and democracy (a political or social unit governed ultimately by all its members).
But I believe a genuinely liberal country does much more; it believes in certain values and actively promotes them. Freedom of speech, freedom of worship, democracy, the rule of law, equal rights regardless of race, sex or sexuality. [David Cameron. Speech at Munich Security Conference, Munich 2011]
There are many other political terms connected with British national belletristic literature. They are democracy, freedom of worship, freedom of speech, the rule of law, equal rights, liberal (=relating to or having policies or views advocating individual freedom), race (a group of people of common ancestry, distinguished from others by physical characteristics, such as colour of eyes and skin, hair type, stature).