Обучение лексике на уроках английского языка в средней школе

INTRODUCTION
CHAPTER I THEORETICAL BASE OF THE INVESTIGATION
1.1 English as a subject and its place in academic curriculum
1.2 Communicative approach as a goal in teaching English
1.3 Difficulties of studying English vocabulary and the ways to overcome them
1.3.1 Phrasal Verbs
1.3.2 Word Derivation
1.3.3 Vocabulary
1.4 Different Age Groups in Studying English
1.5 Different Levels of English
1.6 Studying English with Pupils of Different Levels
1.6.1 Studying English with the Beginners
1.6.2 Intermediate Level
1.6.3 Upper-Intermediate and Advanced Levels
CHAPTER II TEACHING AND DEVELOPING VOCABULARY IN MIDDLE SCHOOL
2.1 Strategies for Teaching Vocabulary
2.2 Vocabulary Games and Activities
CONCLUSION
BIBLIOGRAPHY

Обучение лексике на уроках английского языка в средней школе

Contextual Analysis
According to the National Reading Panel,15 explicit instruction of vocabulary is highly effective. To develop vocabulary intentionally, pupils should be explicitly taught both specific words and word-learning strategies. To deepen pupils' knowledge of word meanings, specific word instruction should be robust.16 Seeing vocabulary in rich contexts provided by authentic texts, rather than in isolated vocabulary drills, produces robust vocabulary learning.17 Such instruction often does not begin with a definition, for the ability to give a definition is often the result of knowing what the word means. Rich and robust vocabulary instruction goes beyond definitional knowledge; it gets pupils actively engaged in using and thinking about word meanings and in creating relationships among words.
Research shows that there are more words to be learned than can be directly taught in even the most ambitious program of vocabulary instruction. Explicit instruction in word-learning strategies gives pupils tools for independently determining the meanings of unfamiliar words that have not been explicitly introduced in class. Since pupils encounter so many unfamiliar words in their reading, any help provided by such strategies can be useful.
Word-learning strategies include dictionary use, morphemic analysis, and contextual analysis. For ELLs whose language shares cognates with English, cognate awareness is also an important strategy. Dictionary use teaches pupils about multiple word meanings, as well as the importance of choosing the appropriate definition to fit the particular context. Morphemic analysis is the process of deriving a word's meaning by analyzing its meaningful parts, or morphemes. Such word parts include root words, prefixes, and suffixes. Contextual analysis involves inferring the meaning of an unfamiliar word by scrutinizing the text surrounding it. Instruction in contextual analysis generally involves teaching pupils to employ both generic and specific types of context clues.
A more general way to help pupils develop vocabulary is by fostering word consciousness, an awareness of and interest in words. Word consciousness is not an isolated component of vocabulary instruction; it needs to be taken into account each and every day.18 It can be developed at all times and in several ways: through encouraging adept diction, through word play, and through research on word origins or histories. According to Graves,19 "If we can get pupils interested in playing with words and language, then we are at least halfway to the goal of creating the sort of word-conscious pupils who will make words a lifetime interest."
One principle of effective vocabulary learning is to provide multiple exposures to a word's meaning. There is great improvement in vocabulary when pupils encounter vocabulary words often.20 According to Stahl,21 pupils probably have to see a word more than once to place it firmly in their long-term memories. "This does not mean mere repetition or drill of the word," but seeing the word in different and multiple contexts. In other words, it is important that vocabulary instruction provide pupils with opportunities to encounter words repeatedly and in more than one context.
It is necessary to use some speech patterns in everyday speech. Even if parents do not know the foreign language their child studies they can consult their teacher or some reference books and to write some messages for their children, such as “Good morning”, “Hello”. It is also to play with children leaving some written hints for them about a hidden present. For example “Go to the kitchen”, “Look into the fridge” and so on. This gives a child the opportunity to see meaningful written language as it is being constructed.
To teach a small child to write it is necessary to observe some rules:
1) Encourage children in all their efforts;
2) Do not worry if the letters are out of order or backwards;
3) Provide plenty of vocabulary materials;
4) Be ready to write words for them to copy when they ask you;
5) Show pride in their efforts 22;
6) Don’t be discouraged by your elementary child's lack of vocabulary skill;
7) Encourage practice, build his fund of language, talk about everything;
8) Don’t be critical of creative writing efforts;
9) Make it fun to encourage a love of vocabulary from an early age.23.
1.4 Different Levels of English
We use a five-level system of aptitude which gives a very comprehensive description of speech and language skills and content for each level. But level intermediate has its own subdivision into three parts. The descriptions for each level apply to a learner at the top of that level, not to one just entering it.
1. Post-beginner can understand a few everyday expressions of simple functions in known situations, and can produce some single words and set phrases in response, or can make requests using, for example, a single word + 'please' ('Salt, please'). Little structural grasp, except in reading, where (s)he can recognise the existence of a few basic structural contrasts (e.g. singular/plural or continuous v. simple) even if not always certain exactly what they mean. Can substitute items in one or two structural patterns in writing, but not manipulate the patterns any further.
2. Elementary can understand many simple expressions of everyday basic functions in familiar situations and sometimes grasp what the basic topic of a conversation in English is. Can produce understandable questions and answers involving information above basic (e.g. Not only 'What is your name?' but ‘What does your father do?') even if structures often go wrong and words are not known. In reading can follow very simplified stories or information, and recognise the meanings of a number of structural contrasts (e.g. ‘the’/‘a’ or ‘I go’/‘I'm going’), and can write a few simple but connected sentences on a given topic with some awareness of the forms required, even if not always using them correctly.
3. Lower (or pre-)intermediate can understand the gist of a commonplace conversation in English, though not in detail, and can produce English well enough to take part if spoken to carefully.
Can also initiate conversation by asking questions on a range of everyday topics (e.g. sport, or food) and can perform most everyday social and practical functions (e.g. buying things in shops, going to the doctor) well enough to survive comfortably. In reading can grasp the full meaning (content) including details, of simpler authentic texts (e.g. instructions on a packet) with the exception of a few of the less common words, including understanding the sense of most basic structures (e.g. verb tense and modals). Can write coherent short compositions using simple but varied structures correctly on a variety of non-specialist topics (e.g. telling stories, personal letters, giving and explaining an opinion).
4. Mid-intermediate can understand the gist of a commonplace conversation involving fluent speakers, provided that some allowances are made, or occasional help given. Can produce well enough to make substantial relevant contributions (e.g. of an example or story clearly related to the topic) and to get full and satisfactory information from other speakers by questioning as necessary. Is functionally competent for all everyday negotiations except where completely unpredictable problems arise.
In reading can get the gist/intention of most straightforward (i.e. non-stylised) authentic texts and can write effective communications of information or opinion, but perhaps with a number of errors, or problems arising from inability to handle some of the more complex structures.
5. Upper intermediate can understand well enough to hold a continuous conversation with a native speaker, even where the speaker does not, or can not, adapt his/her language to a foreigner. Can produce well enough to initiate new topics, change the subject, and generally take part in the management of the conversation rather than merely responding.
Can manage all normal life functions with ease, and cope linguistically with completely new situations (e.g. a negotiation in a shop not going according to expectations). In reading, can understand the majority of any non-specialist, modern text and begin to respond to different 'registers' or types of writing. Can produce fluent writing on most kinds of topic, including arguing for an opinion, and can use complex sentence structures without many errors. A learner at the top of this level should be able to achieve a good pass in the Cambridge First Certificate exam.
6. Advanced can understand native speakers of everyday standard English, even when not being directly addressed, and can therefore take part in normal interaction on almost the same terms as a native speaker. Can produce speech fluent enough to convey feeling, to argue and maintain a point of view, or to convey complex information (e.g. explaining a process) to a listener. In reading, can use specialist books written in English to acquire specialist knowledge (including new terminology), can recognise and respond to different styles of writing and, to some extent, to shades of meaning. Can write fluently and with relatively few errors, not only on any topic but also in a range of styles (e.g. narrative, formal argument, business letters, prepared public speaking). A learner at the top of this level should be able to achieve a good pass in the Cambridge Advanced exam.
7. Proficient native speaker standard in every skill, with two major differences: a) in understanding, a lack of long familiarity with English culture (e.g. television programmes) may make some accents, dialects and cultural references less accessible than they would be to a native speaker; b) on the other hand, a Proficient pupil may well be more at home - in all skills - with the more academically educated kind of English used in colleges, textbooks etc., than is normal with native speakers taken as a whole. A learner at the top of this level should be able to achieve a good pass in the Cambridge Proficiency exam
1.5 Studying English with Pupils of Different Levels
1.5.1 Studying English with the Beginners
According to Michael Graves,24 there are four components of an effective vocabulary program:
1. wide or extensive independent reading to expand word knowledge;
2. instruction in specific words to enhance comprehension of texts containing those words;
3. instruction in independent word-learning strategies, and word consciousness and word-play activities to motivate and enhance learning.
The National Reading Panel concluded that there is no single research-based method for teaching vocabulary.25 From its analysis, the panel recommended using a variety of direct and indirect methods of vocabulary instruction.
There are two basically different approaches to teaching beginners:
Approach One:
1. Select simple structures and vocabulary;
2. Move from one step to the next slowly and carefully;
3. emphasize accuracy throughout.
Approach Two:
1. Select only according to strict functional criteria;
2. Present & practise variety of structures and lexis in one lesson;
3. Emphasize fluency rather than accuracy.
Staged Progression:
1. What's your name? My name is.. ;
2. What time is it? (1-6 o'clock) ;
3. What's his/her name? ;
4. What time is it? (7-12 o'clock) ;
5. Is/isn't a city/country ... is/isn't a big/small country ... is in ...;
6. He/she is in ... Is he/she in..? Yes/No is/isn't ;
7. .. is a big/small country/city ;
8. Are you in..? Yes, I am/ No, I'm not.;
9. He/She is from..... ;
10. Where's ...from? ;
11. Where are you from? I'm from.. ;
12. Are you from..? Yes, I am. No, I'm not. ;
13. ... is near... It's a town/city ;
14. He/She has got a bike/ small/big car. ;
15. What about you? I've got a... ;
16. I haven't got a… He/She hasn't got a … ;
17. Have you got a … Has he got a phone/flat/house/bike? ;
18. Numbers 12-100.
Themes and Operations to be distributed throughout the course:
1. Talking about ones job, salary, colleagues.
2. Describing ones own flat or house, giving such information as address, telephone number, how to get to where one lives.
3. Describing ones own hobbies & interests.
4. Getting information from others in reference to three above themes.
5. Getting and giving opinions about films, books, clothes, food, other people's behaviour and tastes.
6. Family, home and friends (describing relationships, "doing" socialising language).
7. Talking about, buying and ordering food & clothes.
8. Making & getting suggestions about what to do, where to go in ones spare time.
9. Giving & soliciting advice.
10. Giving & getting instructions about how to do things.
11. Describing ones daily habits and routine.
12. Describing other states such as certainty, uncertainty and doubt = expressing such things directly. Describing and inquiring about Cause and Effect in various areas.
13. Health, minor illnesses.
14. Language associated with travel.
Some examples of typical goals for elementary learners can be categorised according to status or term.
1. SHORT TERM. Teach a few examples of the most frequent questions we use to get information from and about other people's jobs, nationality, where/live
2. MID TERM. Building on Wh corpus above, extend outwards to other functions such as inquiring into cause, asking about likes/dislikes. At the same time begin to contrast systematically the difference in construction between simple & progressive Qs.
3. LONG TERM. Help the learner towards generative competence in Giving & Getting information about oneself & other people, asking for things, suggesting things, offering & refusing things. Relate these utterances to the structural principles underlying them:
Tense
Word Order
Modality.
This will involve contrasting utterances like -
Can/Do/Did you (do)?
Are/Were you (doing)?
Have you (done) (been ....ing)?
1.5.2 Intermediate Level
Studying vocabulary is not only studying what words mean. As the Advanced Dictionary Skills program teaches you, to use vocabulary correctly you need to know about collocation, connotation, and how to use words in phrases and sentences; i.e. how a word fits into a sentence grammatically. Vocabulary also involves choosing the correct word to express your meaning from a number of similar words.
Many errors in English are a result of interference from the speaker/writer's own language, or because they are, for example, unsure of the ending of the word.
English Intermediate level is designed to help to improve Intermediate level English vocabulary skills including spelling, sentence, paragraph and basic essay comprehension.
You can interact with enough fluency and spontaneity to make regular interaction with native speakers very possible. You can participate in discussions in familiar contexts, expressing your views.
In Intermediate level 1 you now manage basic grammatical structures well. You practice making suggestions, complaints and making arrangements.
At this level you can take the Cambridge PET exam, (Preliminary English Test).
In Intermediate 2 your ability to talk about the future and use conditionals improves. You can talk about problems, give advice and write letters. Your vocabulary includes education and health.
In Intermediate 3 you can get your opinions across and speak about current issues. Your vocabulary is more extensive.
In Intermediate 4 your fluency improves and you develop your ability to express opinions.26
1.5.3 Upper-Intermediate and Advanced Levels
Pupils of these levels can follow most lectures, discussions and debates. You can develop an argument systematically, highlighting significant points and relative supporting detail in discussions or in written form.
In Upper-Intermediate Level you can now express your ideas on general topics well in both the spoken and written form. You can use more complex structures and you have a good level of fluency and a more extensive vocabulary including some phrasal verbs and idiomatic expressions.
At the end of Upper-Intermediate Level 4 you are competent in communicating in any situation. At this level you can take the Cambridge FCE exam, (First Certificate of English).
At Advanced level you can easily understand discussions even on complex, unfamiliar situations. You can write well-structured compositions on complex subjects. You can give clear presentations on complex issues, integrating sub themes and developing particular points.
After the second module you can take the Cambridge FCE, exam (First Certificate of English).27
CHAPTER II TEACHING AND DEVELOPING VOCABULARY IN MIDDLE SCHOOL
2.1 Strategies for Teaching Vocabulary
We teach vocabulary to enable students to communicate. We must use teaching techniques that can help realize this global concept of what it means to know a lexical item. And we must also go beyond that, giving learner opportunities to use the items learnt and also helping them to use effective written storage systems.
Psychological aspect of vocabulary teaching /learning is very important. We should take into consideration the mechanisms of memory, motivation, perception, etc.
Understanding how our memory works might help us create more effective ways to teach vocabulary.
R. Oxford (1990) suggests memory strategies to aid learning, and these strategies can be divided into:
- creating mental linkages: grouping, associating, placing new words into a context;
- applying images and sounds: using imagery, semantic mapping, using keywords and representing sounds in memory;
- reviewing well, in a structured way;
- employing action: physical response or sensation, using mechanical techniques.
The techniques just mentioned can be used to greater advantage if we can diagnose learning style preferences (visual, aural, kinesthetic, tactile) and make students aware of different memory strategies.
As a means of communication a FL fulfills its main functions, such as:
- Communication function which makes it possible to exchange ideas, thoughts,
information; the importance of vocabulary can hardly be overvalued because, as G.Beacher said, "all words are pegs to hang ideas on";
- Discourse function which makes it possible logically to connect ideas in the dynamic process of thinking;
- Cumulative function which makes the process of cognition possible for all the language units of information about our reality are accumulated. This function is determined by vocabulary as well, for words are collective memory of people (native people), they mirror the life of nation and they serve as a key of knowledge about culture.
The essence of good vocabulary instruction is the creation of contexts in which pupils constantly use relevant vocabulary in their reading, writing, and speaking. This is in contrast to the ineffective, but far more prevalent, "assign, define and test" approach. Teachers in each content area should implement purposeful vocabulary instruction to: 1) increase reading comprehension, 2) develop knowledge of new concepts, 3) improve range and specificity in writing, 4) help pupils communicate more effectively, and 5) develop deeper understanding of words and concepts with which pupils are only familiar.
There are many strategies that allow pupils to master words. Let’s consider some of them.
The Stephens Vocabulary Elaboration Strategy (SVES) requires pupils to maintain a vocabulary notebook.28 Whenever a new (or unclear) word confronts a pupil, the pupil writes and defines the term in the vocabulary notebook. Pupils should regularly review these words with the ultimate goal of integrating them into their working vocabularies.
This strategy stresses dictionary skills. Pupils use a dictionary to define new words and their parts of speech. The dictionary also points out the multiple meanings of many words. Pupils use critical thinking skills to analyze the specific content of a reading selection to determine the most appropriate definition of a word.
Steps to Stephens Vocabulary Elaboration Strategy (SVES):