Основные лексические и грамматические расхождения в британском и американском вариантах английского языка (на материале общественно- политических текс

Основные лексические и грамматические расхождения в британском и американском вариантах английского языка (на материале общественно- политических текстов).
Целью исследования является исследование публицистических текстов на английском языке, выявление их лингвистических особенностей, изучение особенностей их перевода и выявление расхождений между британским и американским вариантом английского языка.
Объектом исследования являются общественно-политические тексты.
Предмет исследования - лексико-грамматические особенности общественно-политических текстов.
P.S. оригинальность 77% по Антиплагиат.ВУЗ
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СОДЕРЖАНИЕ
Введение…………………………………………………………………………...3
I. Публицистический стиль и его особенности
1.1. Отличительные черты общественно-политического текста………………6
1.2. Особенности перевода британской и американской прессы…………….24
Выводы по главе I………..………………………………………………………29
II. Основные лексические и грамматические расхождения между британским и американским вариантом английского языка
2.1. Лексические особенности…………………………………………………..31
2.1.1. Реалии……………………………………………………………………...32
2.1.2 Безэквивалентная лексика………………………………………………...36
2.1.3 Сокращения……………………………………………………………….41
2.1.4 Неологизмы………………………………………………………………45
2.2. Грамматические особенности……………………………………………...48
2.3. Анализ лексических и грамматических расхождений между британским и американским вариантом английского языка……………………………….53
2.4. Статистические данные…………………………………………………….61
Выводы по главе II..……………………………………………………………..62
Заключение………………………………………………………………………64
Библиография……………………………………………………………………66
Приложение………………………………………………………………………69

ВВЕДЕНИЕ
Современная лингвистика уделяет значительное внимание изучению языка средств массовой информации, и, прежде всего, языка газеты, который характеризуется жанровым разнообразием, яркостью, динамичностью.
Публицистика, которую называют летописью современности, во всей полноте отражает текущую историю, обращена к злободневным проблемам общества - политическим, социальным, бытовым, философским и т. д. Чтобы убедиться в тематической необозримости, широте публицистики, достаточно открыть любой номер какой-либо газеты и просмотреть ее заголовки. Так вы получите общее представление о содержании тем, опубликованных в печатном издании.
Актуальность темы исследования обусловлена тем, что в современных условиях перевод общественно-политических текстов приобретает особое значение, выступая как средство пропаганды и орудие идеологической борьбы. Объем издаваемых ежегодно общественно-политических текстов, достаточно велик и продолжает увеличиваться. Здесь и выступления государственных, партийных и общественных деятелей; публикации международных, правительственных и общественных организаций; статьи, посвященные борьбе за мир, разрядке международной напряженности, сокращению и ограничению вооружений, национально- освободительному движению и экономическим отношениям.

"Mankind has been asking the question, 'Are there other planets out there? Is there other life out there?' for thousands of years," Kepler scientist William Borucki told reporters. "In the next few years we'll have the answers to some of these questions."The WeekSeptember 2, 2010Administration to Seek Balance in Airport Screening.WASHINGTON — Amid the uproar that airport screening has become too intrusive, some Americans are now asking why the United States cannot do it like the Israelis.Representative John L. Mica, Republican of Florida and a critic of the Obama administration’s new screening methods, says the Transportation Security Administration should look at Israel, which uses early detection techniques at airports. An editorial in The Washington Times last week praised El Al, the Israeli national airline, as employing the “smarter approach” of using “sophisticated intelligence analysis which allows them to predict which travelers constitute a possible threat and which do not.”As it turns out, the security methods employed by Israel’s famous Shin Bet security service at Ben-Gurion International Airport in Tel Aviv are frequently stricter and more intrusive than the full-body scanners and pat-downs American officials put into place Nov. 1, said security analysts and the travelers who regularly show up at Ben-Gurion four hours before their flights for screening.At Ben-Gurion, some passengers have been searched so thoroughly that they have had to walk through the terminals, the gates and up to the doors of their planes with no handbags, wallets or even shoes.The Israeli approach highlights the difficult balance faced by the Obama administration as it tries to address terror threats without unduly alienating the people it is trying to protect. The Israeli system relies on steps that would be likely to provoke opposition in the United States on civil liberties grounds: collecting detailed information about passengers before they fly. Besides, Israel has only two airports and 50 flights a day, compared with 450 airports and thousands of daily flights in the United States.The administration argues that by focusing at airports on the search for weapons — in contrast to the Israelis, who focus in airports on finding terrorists — the United States is mounting a valuable and necessary last line of defense without undermining civil liberties. The multiethnic population of the United States makes it more difficult here than in Israel to profile possible terrorists, experts say, leaving officials with little choice but to screen passengers carefully for illicit items.“If you say at the highest level of generality that the American system is looking for weapons and the Israelis are looking for terrorists, obviously we would be better off looking for terrorists, because then we would spare ourselves the silly indignities we imposed on ourselves because of our civil liberties laws,” said Stewart Baker, the author of “Skating on Stilts: Why We Aren’t Stopping Tomorrow’s Terrorism” and a former official with the Department of Homeland Security. “But we tried that, tried doing security checks on passengers, and a left-right coalition said, ‘You can’t trust the government with this.’ ”Mr. Baker was referring to several proposals for advanced screening that were scrapped during the Bush administration after travel industry and civil liberties groups objected. One plan would have involved checking credit records and criminal histories, along with checking whether passengers were on terrorism watch lists. Based on results, each traveler would have been assigned a risk level. Those deemed dangerous would have been barred from flights.Critics contended it was an invasion of privacy. The T.S.A. eventually found its way to the screening system it is using now, which searches for weapons instead of relying primarily on profiling people.On Monday, administration officials said that they would try to iron out the kinks in the system in response to public concerns, but they maintained that the new system would be around as long as there were people seeking to blow up planes. The White House press secretary, Robert Gibbs, said the government was “desperately” trying to balance privacy and security.The T.S.A. administrator, John S. Pistole, released a public service announcement and video describing the new procedures in advance of the Thanksgiving travel week. Administration officials say that fewer than 3 percent of passengers are receiving pat-downs; people get them if their screening raises an alarm, or if they refuse the body scan.Representative Mica said that the Israeli model worked because Israeli agents “try to detect behavior or people’s patterns” by asking them questions. Israeli officials say that any passenger trying to board El Al is subject to questions from security agents.“Everybody gets asked, who you are, where are you traveling to,” one Israeli official said, speaking on grounds of anonymity because he did not want to speak publicly about the security measures. The agents asking the questions, he said, “are very well trained.”“Depending on what you say,” he said, “they will put you through an additional screening.”Mr. Baker, the security expert, said: “Israeli agents focus on the travelers’ country of origin, their profession, visas that are stamped in their passports, places they have visited, people they know and the color of their skin. If you say you’re a Renaissance art scholar, they’ll ask you if you know who Titian is.”Mr. Mica maintained that the Israeli system was not profiling. “Someone is trained to do it with people who warrant further scrutiny,” he said.But some travelers say they would rather go through a full body scan than the system at Ben-Gurion airport. “My experience leaving Tel Aviv was by far and away the most unpleasant encounter I’ve ever had with airport security officials in the decade,” said Matthew Yglesias, a blogger with the Center for American Progress who said it took three hours last month for him to get from the initial security check at Ben-Gurion to the food court. “As best I could tell, things went pretty smoothly as long as you were Israeli, traveling with an Israeli, or traveling with some kind of well-established tour group.” Mr. Yglesias was traveling with a group of journalists. “The African-American woman in our group was taken off to be questioned. A bunch of us were told we couldn’t bring iPads on the plane,” he said. The Jewish member of his group “had the easiest time,” he said. “The black woman had the hardest time.” The New York TimesOctober 23, 2010A Red-Carpet Jeweler Is Charged With FraudA Duchess of Newcastle diamond brooch, circa 1887. A gilded album commissioned by Marie Antoinette in 1781. A carved ivory, enamel and jeweled case made at the request of Czar Nicholas II in 1893.Taken together, these intricate pieces and sparkling objects are valued at about $3 million. But they make up only a fraction of the jewelry and other collectibles that federal prosecutors say were at the center of an equally intricate series of frauds orchestrated by Ralph O. Esmerian, the former owner of the jewelry company Fred Leighton, who has draped his glittering treasures around the necks and wrists of celebrities in what some have called a red-carpet marketing campaign.Agents from the United States Postal Inspection Service arrested Mr. Esmerian, 70, a former board president of the Museum of American Folk Art and one of its biggest patrons, on Monday morning. He was charged with bankruptcy fraud and wire fraud and concealing assets, and he appeared later in the day before a federal magistrate in United States District Court in Manhattan.A fourth-generation jeweler, Mr. Esmerian was accused of embezzling and pledging as collateral the same $40 million in connection with $217 million in loans that he used to finance his business, officials said.Some of that money, from Merrill Lynch Mortgage Capital, went to his 2006 purchase of Fred Leighton, which had an inventory, according to his estimate at the time, worth about $192.3 million.“Ralph Esmerian allegedly lied and looted to maintain his personal and financial status by tricking his lenders, stealing from investors and deceiving the bankruptcy court,” the United States attorney in Manhattan, Preet Bharara, said in a news release announcing the charges. The 20-page criminal complaint in the case, sworn out by a postal inspector, Eleanor Berry, accuses Mr. Esmerian of a range of schemes and transactions, from the loans and surreptitious sales of various multimillion-dollar pieces of jewelry and collectibles to fraud in connection with a transaction involving his apartment. Among the other jewels involved in the schemes, according to the complaint, were a 13-carat Burma ruby and diamond ring, which was part of the collateral for one of two Merrill Lynch loans and which Mr. Esmerian valued at $2.94 million, and an Endymion butterfly brooch, worth about $2.45 million. Between the 18th- and 19th-century figures, the litany of pink gold, diamonds, rubies and emeralds and the details of the charges, the complaint has a taste of European history, a bit of a bankruptcy treatise and a hint of a shopping scene from “The Real Housewives of Beverly Hills.” But the charges that Mr. Esmerian faces, if he is convicted, could land him in federal prison for a maximum of 30 years. He did not have the air of a downtrodden defendant, however, when he walked into the courtroom, wearing a dark-blue shirt and a gray suit with a light-chalk stripe. He strode into the well and turned right away to look at his longtime companion in the gallery, nodding and smiling at her. During the proceeding, before Magistrate Judge Theodore H. Katz, a prosecutor from Mr. Bharara’s office said federal authorities believed that Mr. Esmerian was a flight risk, citing what he said were the jeweler’s ties abroad — relatives in Paris and some time living in Greece — and strong evidence that he had bank accounts in Switzerland or Liechtenstein. “There is tens of millions of dollars in missing collateral that has simply vanished,” said the prosecutor, David B. Massey. “He has lied repeatedly to the bankruptcy court.”But Mr. Esmerian’s lawyer, Patricia Pileggi, said that he had lived in New York practically his entire life and argued that he posed no flight risk. She said that while his parents were dead and that he was estranged from his sister, his companion, Bonnie Selfe, was the only one willing to help him. Ms. Selfe works for a company affiliated with Van Cleef & Arpels and previously worked for Cartier.Magistrate Katz ordered Mr. Esmerian released on a $3.5 million personal recognizance bond, co-signed by Ms. Selfe and secured by the equity in her Tudor City apartment, which Ms. Pileggi said was worth $3.5 million. Outside the courtroom, Ms. Pileggi spoke briefly to reporters, saying, “We look forward to responding to these allegations.” The New York TimesOctober 21, 2010Prince William and Kate Middleton set for April 2011 weddingPrince William and Kate Middleton are reportedly looking at an April wedding. The couple, who got engaged last week, are believed to have put forward a possible date of April 28th for their nuptials, and are waiting for clearance from Downing Street and the Royal family.An official announcement is expected next week, as Royal aides claim the couple, who have been dating for almost eight years, are both desperate to walk down the aisle: "Kate and William both view this process rather like tooth extraction. They want to get back to a life of relative normality as soon as possible to 'get it over with and get back to our quiet life', which is sweet but unrealistic." Another source added: "They know what they want."The wedding is expected to fall on a week-day, meaning British Prime Minister David Cameron will have the opportunity to give Britain an extra Bank Holiday, allowing everyone to join in with the celebration.By Jessica DavidGlamour, November 2010Different views on equalityEU agency says more needs to be done to achieve equality. A decade after the European Union passed a law against racial discrimination in the workplace, equal treatment is still not a reality, according to the EU's Agency for Fundamental Rights.In a report published in October, based on interviews with more than 300 employers, trade unionists and members of equality bodies in all 27 member states, the agency argues that more needs to be done.On the plus side, many employers said that the EU law had yielded results: diversity audits, new codes of conduct and complaints procedures show that companies are taking the issue seriously, the report said. However, the report identified another line of thinking among employers, especially in the EU's newer member states, who saw the anti-discrimination law as part of a “Western Europe package of ‘exotic' issues” forced upon them as part of EU accession. There were problems across the EU with how the law was interpreted. Many employers and trade unionists said they believed that the law only set out to protect certain groups, but not others; for example, discrimination against Roma was not seen as falling under the directive. European VoiceNovember 18, 2010Older workersThe EU also has legislation in place to stop discrimination against older workers. However, the law in this area is less clear-cut, because age-based discrimination is allowed if it can be justified. Older people are under-represented in the labour market: only 46% of those aged 55-64 are in paid work, compared to an average for all age groups of 69% and a goal to get 75% of the population aged 20-64 in work by 2020. Organisations that fight for the rights of older people are campaigning to scrap mandatory retirement ages, arguing that they give an outdated view of peoples' capabilities.A recent report from the European Older People's Platform (AGE Europe) concluded: “It is far from unthinkable that many 70- year-olds can and will want to be in paid employment, while younger people may need to withdraw from the labour market due to ill- health or because of caring responsibilities.” That view chimes with plans by many EU governments to raise retirement ages to offset the costs of an ageing population. European VoiceNovember 18, 2010CANCER: NOW 70% OF CHILDREN CAN BEAT LEUKAEMIAA BREAKTHROUGH treatment can help children beat recurring leukaemia.Scientists say the discovery will have a big impact on treating the most common form of blood cancer.A study showed that children whose acute lymphoblastic leukaemia (ALL) returns have a higher chance of survival if given the drug mitoxantrone.After three years on it, 69 per cent of child victims were still alive compared to just 45 per cent on current standard treatment, idarubicin.The benefit was so clear the trial was stopped early and now all relapsed patients will get the new drug.Cancer Research UK expert Professor Vaskar Saha, who worked on the study, said: “These striking results offer hope to many families across the country.”More children die from leukaemia than any other cancer and ALL accounts for eight in 10 cases. Around 380 children are diagnosed every year in Britain. “Daily Express” Saturday 4th December 2010SNOW: BRITAIN COLDER THAN THE SOUTH POLEICE-ravaged Britain was colder than the South Pole yesterday, with temperatures plunging to -21C in some places. In contrast, the British Antarctic Survey’s Rothera research station on the Antarctic Peninsula was a positively balmy zero degrees.Some coastal areas, including Portland Harbour in Dorset, were so cold that the sea began to freeze in places. Forecasters warned that the freezing weather would last for weeks, possibly into 2011.Conditions are set to remain poor with widespread frost and ice and the worst-hit areas struggling to get above zero. Met Office forecaster Andy Lane warned: “The outlook is cold. For the rest of December until the new year the temperature will remain well below average.“December 20 will range on average from 3C in Scotland to 8C in the South. “The South will see minimum temperatures of 3C to 4C throughout the next month.“The temperatures will remain cold enough for snow in the North, with widespread frost and ice through the UK.”Aisling Creevey, a forecaster with Meteogroup, said: “Any thaw will be a very slow process. It’s a big, icy mess.”“Daily Express” Saturday 4th December 2010Senate Rejects Obama’s Tax Plan, Setting Stage for DealWASHINGTON — The Senate on Saturday rejected President Obama’s proposal to extend the Bush-era tax breaks for all but the wealthiest taxpayers, a triumph for Republicans who have long called for continuing the income tax cuts for everyone.The Senate’s verdict set the stage for a possible deal in the coming days to extend the reduced tax rates even on high incomes temporarily, perhaps for up to two years. But with Senate Democrats and the White House badly splintered, and some lawmakers increasingly angry at the idea of sustaining President George W. Bush’s economic policies, the prospects of a compromise remain uncertain. If Congress does not act, the tax rates expire for everyone on Dec. 31, meaning an increase across the board. The rate in the lowest bracket would rise to 15 percent from 10 percent and in the highest bracket to 39.6 percent from 35 percent. The administration and Congressional leaders have been discussing a plan that would temporarily extend the income tax rates, and also include a one-year extension of jobless aid for the long-term unemployed, which has started to run out.White House officials said they were pressing to continue other tax breaks for middle- and lower-income Americans included in the 2009 stimulus plan, which Republicans said they were considering. Many other taxes, including the estate tax, the alternative minimum tax, and taxes on capital gains, interest and dividends are also part of the talks. Mr. Obama’s preferred plan fell seven votes short of the 60 it needed to advance under Senate rules. The vote was 53 to 36, on a bill adopted by the House on Thursday, that would end the Bush-era cuts on income above $250,000 a year for couples and $200,000 a year for individuals — a step Mr. Obama had hoped to take at the start of this year, but abandoned for fear of worsening the most severe recession since the Great Depression.Republicans voted unanimously against the House-passed bill, and they were joined by four Democrats — Senators Russ Feingold of Wisconsin, Joe Manchin III of West Virginia, Ben Nelson of Nebraska, and Jim Webb of Virginia — as well as by Senator Joseph I. Lieberman, independent of Connecticut.“You don’t raise taxes if your ultimate goal, if the main thing is to create jobs,” said Senator John Thune, Republican of South Dakota, echoing an argument made repeatedly by his colleagues during the floor debate.The Senate on Saturday also rejected an alternative proposal, championed by Senator Charles E. Schumer of New York, to raise the threshold at which the tax breaks would expire to $1 million. Some Democrats said that the Republicans’ opposition to that plan showed them to be siding with “millionaires and billionaires” over the middle class. “It seems to me that about the best way to reduce the deficit is not to give $300 billion of tax breaks to the 315,000 Americans whose income is over a million dollars,” Mr. Schumer said, adding: “It’s not that we want to punish wealthy people. We want to praise them. But they’re doing fine, and they’re not going to spend the money and stimulate the economy.” The roll call on the so-called millionaire’s tax, which also needed 60 votes, was 53 to 37 with Republicans again unanimously opposed and joined this time by Mr. Feingold, Mr. Lieberman and Senators Richard J. Durbin of Illinois, Tom Harkin of Iowa and John D. Rockefeller IV of West Virginia.