Варианты и диалекты английского языка

Данная выпускная квалифицированная работа посвящена вопросу возникновения и различий вариантов и диалектов английского языка.
Работа состоит из введения, двух глав, заключения, списка использованной
литературы и приложений.
Работа защищена на отлично в 2014 году. ...

Introduction ................................................................................................................. 5

1. Theoretical survey ................................................................................................... 7

The History of the English Language ......................................................................... 7

1.1 The Development of the English Language in the XVI-XVIII Centuries ............ 8

1.2 The Development of the English Language in the XVIII-XXI Centuries .......... 13

1.3 Variability of the English Language ................................................................... 18

1.4 Modern English Dialects ..................................................................................... 21

Results I ..................................................................................................................... 24

2. Linguistic investigation ......................................................................................... 26

2.1 Modern variants and dialects of the English language ....................................... 26

2.2 Insight into two variants of the English language: Irish English and Indian
English....................................................................................................................... 27

2.2.1 Irish English ..................................................................................................... 27

2.2.2 Indian English .................................................................................................. 35

2.3 Phonetic variability of territorial and social dialects of the English language ... 43

Results II.................................................................................................................... 50

Conclusions ............................................................................................................... 51

References ................................................................................................................. 53

Appendix ................................................................................................................... 57

The present investigation is devoted to the study of Dialects and Variants of the English Language.

The actuality of the paper is conditioned by the fact that this topic, despite its popularity remains interesting and informative for a future linguist, because the issue involves a lot of linguistic, geographical and historical material.

Note also theindirectness of this construction relative to, for example, ‘She’s coming now’.“Tis herself that's coming now.” Is í féinatáagteachtanois.“Was it all of ye or just yourself?”It is also common to end sentences with ‘no?’ or ‘yeah?’:“He isn’t coming today, no?”“The bank’s closed now, yeah?”33Though because of the particularly in substantive “yes” and “no” in Irish, (thenachbhfuil? and anbhfuil? being the interrogative positive and negative of the verb‘to be’) the above may also find expression as:“He isn’t coming today, sure he isn’t?”“The bank’s closed now, isn’t it?”This is not limited only to the verb ‘to be’: it is also used with ‘to have’ whenused as an auxiliary; and, with other verbs, the verb ‘to do’ is used. This is mostcommonly used for intensification.“This is strongstuff, so it is.”“We won the game, so we did.”There are some language forms that stem from the fact that there is no verb ‘tohave’ in Irish. Instead, possession is indicated in Irish by using the preposition‘at’, (in Irish, ag.). To be more precise, Irish uses a prepositional pronoun thatcombines ag “at” and me “me” to create agam. In English, the verb “to have” isused, along with a “with me” or “on me”.“Do you have the book? I have it with me.”“Have you change for the bus on you?”“He will not shut up if he has drink taken.”Somebody who can speak a language 'has' a language, in which Hiberno-Englishhas borrowed the grammatical form used in Irish.“She does not have Irish”. NílGaeilgeaici. literally “There is no Irish at her”.When describing something, rural Hiberno-English speakers may use the term‘in it’ where ‘there’ would usually be used. This is due to the Irish word ann(pronounced “oun”) fulfilling both meanings.“Is it yourself that is in it?”Conditionals have a greater presence in Irish English due to the tendency toreplace the simple present tense with the conditional (would) and the simple pasttense with the conditional perfect (would have).“John asked me would I buy a loaf of bread” (‘John asked me to buy a loaf ofbread’)34“How do you know him? We would have been in school together.” (‘We went toschool together’)Bring and take: Irish use of these words differs from that of English, because itfollows the Gaelic grammar for beir and tóg. English usage is determined bydirection; person determines Irish usage. So, in English, one takes “from here tothere”, and brings it “to here from there”. Nevertheless, in Irish, a person takesonly when accepting a transfer of possession of the object from someone else – anda person brings at all other times, irrespective of direction (to or from).“Do not forget to bring your umbrella with you when you go.”(To a child) “Hold my hand: I do not want someone to take you.”Amn’t is used as an abbreviation of “am not”, by analogy with “isn’t” and“aren’t”. This can be used as a tag question (“I’m making a mistake, amn’t I?”), oras an alternative to “I’m not” (“I amn’t joking”), and the double negative is alsoused (“I’m not late, amn’t I not?”). This occurs also in Scottish English.Reduplication is an alleged trait of Hiberno-English strongly associated withstage-Irish and Hollywood films (to be sure, to be sure). It is virtually never usedin reality.“arbith” corresponds to English “at all”, so the stronger “archorarbith” givesrise to the form “at all at all”“I’ve no money at all at all.”English phrases are “to be sure” and “to be sure to be sure”. In this context,these are not, as might be thought, disjuncts meaning “certainly”; they could betterbe translated in case and “just in case”.“I brought some cash in case I saw a bargain and my credit card ‘to be sure tobe sure’.”So is often used for emphasis (“I can speak Irish, so I can”), or it may be tackedon to the end of a sentence to indicate agreement, where “then” would often beused in Standard English (“Bye so”, “Let’s go so”). The word is also used tocontradict a negative statement (“You’re not pushing hard enough” – “I am so!”).To is often omitted from sentences where it would exist in British English. For35example, “I’m not allowed go out tonight”, instead of “I’m not allowed to go outtonight”.2.2.2 Indian EnglishEnglish, although a relative latecomer to India, is one of the subcontinent’s mostimportant languages. It is, after Hindi, the second most widely spoken language inIndia. Because India includes so many different languages, many incomprehensibleto other speakers in the country, an interlanguage is needed. Efforts to promoteHindi as the sole national language have met strong resistance, especially in thesouth, where the native languages are non-Indo-European and local pride resistsnorthern Hindi but accepts foreign English. The entry of English into India can betraced to as early as the end of the year 1600, when Queen Elizabeth I granted acharter to the East India Company of London merchants for a monopoly of trade inthe Orient. Missionaries and missionary schools followed the merchants. In theXIX century, the British Raj (or government in India) was formed and promotedEnglish instruction throughout the land. For young Indians to make their way inlife, they needed to assimilate to English culture, particularly the language, and soan Indian dialect of English came into existence. The pronunciation of IndianEnglish is greatly influenced by local languages and thus varies in different parts ofthe country. For example, [t], [d], and [n] may have a retroflex articulation, withthe tongue curled back touching the roof of the mouth. Initial [sk-], [sl-], and [sp-]do not occur in Hindi, so Indian English has [ɪskul] for school, [ɪslip] for sleep, and[ɪspič] for speech. The sounds [w] and [v] may not be distinguished phonemically,so wet and vet are pronounced alike. Among variants of Indian English thefollowing ones can be singled out: Hinglish, Punjabi/Delhi English, U.P/BihariEnglish,Bengali/AssameseEnglish,OriyaEnglish,GujaratiEnglish,Maharashtrian English, Kanglish, Telugu English, Tamil English, MalayaleeEnglish. In some Indian languages, aspirated and unaspirated stops, such as [t] and[th] are different phonemes, and voiced stops such as [bh] and [dh] may beaspirated. The vowels [e] of fate and [o] of boat are often articulated as pure long36vowels [e:] and [o:], rather than the phonetic diphthongs [ɛɪ] and [ǝʊ] of othervarieties of English.Also, Indian English may be syllable-timed rather than stress-timed like Britishand American. Stress-timing pronounces strongly stressed syllables with aboutequal intervals between them, so hurries over intervening unstressed syllables,something like “aTIME – toSLEEP - andbeQUIet,” creating a syncopated effect.Syllable timing gives approximately the same intervals between all syllablesregardless of their stress, something like “a – time – to – sleep – and – be – qui –et,” creating a staccato effect.Grammatically, native Indian languages also affect Indian English. Questionsmay be formed without inversion of the subject and verb: “Why you are sayingthat?” An invariable tag question is used: “We are meeting tomorrow, isn’t it?”Progressive forms are used for stative verbs: “He is knowing English well.”The most numerous differences are probably in vocabulary. Many native Indianwords are imported into Indian English, of which the following are a very smallsample, emphasizing some that have entered wider English use: amah ‘nurse,’babu ‘Indian gentleman,’ baksheesh ‘gratuity, tip,’ banyan ‘fig tree,’ hang‘marijuana,’ chit ‘note,’ crore ‘ten million,’ dhoti ‘loin cloth,’ dinghy ‘small boat,’ghee ‘clarified butter,’ kedgeree ‘a dish of rice and other ingredients,’ kulfi‘a typeof ice cream,’ masala ‘a blend of spices,’ memsahib ‘European lady,’ nabob‘person of wealth or prominence’.Lexis of Indian English has been studied to some extent by scholars. Since earlytimes, words that have gone from India to native varieties of English have been ofscholarly and general interest. When compared to syntax, the insistence on the useof the standard form is less pressing for lexis. There are definitely words that areconsidered to be standard and others non-standard, while some are considered to beinformal.A corpus-based study of British (Lancaster-Oslo/Bergen Corpus), American(Brown Corpus) and Indian English (The Kolhapur Corpus) reveals a corevocabulary of a little over 1000 words across the varieties. In IE, many words that37have no cultural or other kinds of significance are either not used or are rare,irrespective of whether they are from Britain or USA. Some examples are:snow ploughsmoggartersuspenderjumperpantyhose/tightsThe words above, however, are familiar to those who are even moderately well-read. IE lexis, is largely British but there are some preferences for Americanwords. Comparing the different forms from Trudgill and Hannah we find that somewords from USA are preferred in India. Some examples are:IE/AEstovepharmacyhardware storebuffetBEcookerchemistironmongersideboardThe American faculty is preferred in Indian universities over the British staff. InIndian universities, staff refers to non-teaching staff. The word staff is not rejectedand is more commonly used in colleges and schools rather than universities.British words are used instead of the American equivalents in the following list:IE/BEjamjellyjuglorrydustbintappetrolAEjellyjellopitchertruckgarbage canfaucetgas38pavementsidewalkIn general, most of IE lexis comes from Britain. However, several words arecompletely different from both British and American English:IEbrinjallady’s fingerwine shopdickeymetrotorchlightBE/AEaubergine/eggplantokraoff-licence/liquor storeboot/trunkunderground/railwaytorchSweater is a term for all kinds of warm clothing worn over other clothes; pursemust be held in the hand; and handbag must have handles and be slung on theshoulder.Some English words have meanings that are quite different from the meaningsin native varieties. For example:IEstirshiftcleversmartbearerback-bencherbotherationquartershotelmythologicalsocialmeaning‘strike’‘move, especially house or office’‘intelligent, especially cunning’‘well-dressed’ or ‘cunning’‘waiter’‘one who occupies the last rows in a classroom, generally a dull ormischievous student’‘bother’‘houses owned by government or employer and allocated toemployees for residence’‘restaurant’‘a film with a mythological theme’‘a film with a social theme’39latrinemixtureconvent‘a toilet in any place’‘a snack combining several ingredients, such as lentils andpeanuts’‘a school run by Christians’Serjeantson provides a classificatory list of the Indian words that have becomeassimilated into English from the earliest times of contact between Britain andIndia [25]. Subba Rao also provides a word list from the seventeenth centuryonwards. Some of the more common words seen in English from the sixteenthcentury are:lacdivancaravancalicobetelcoircurry‘resin’, from Sanskritfrom Persianfrom Persian, perhaps through Frenchfrom the name Calicut, in Keralafrom Malayalam, through Portuguesefrom Malayalam, through Portuguesefrom TamilWords of the seventeenth, eighteenth and nineteenth centuries are:XVIIgurupunditchintzpunch (the drink)cotbungalowjuggernautpukkaXVIIIcheetahchitbangleshampoonautchXIXdacoitthugcashmerepyjamaschutneylootgymkhanapugAll the below are from Hindustani.mongoosesepoyshawlfrom Marathifrom Persianfrom Persian40pariahcherootcatamaranteakavatarjutecorundummulligatawnybandicootyogamayakarmakhakipatchoulifrom Tamilfrom Tamilfrom Tamilfrom Malayalam, through Portuguesefrom Sanskritfrom Bengalifrom Tamilfrom Tamilfrom Telugufrom Sanskritfrom Sanskritfrom Sanskritfrom Persianfrom TamilAs may be expected, words are taken from a particular register especially whencorresponding vocabulary is missing in the borrowing language. One such registeris philosophy. Words such as avatar, guru, dharma, karma, moksha etc. have beentaken from Indian philosophy into English and have no original Englishequivalents. Most words borrowed during the XIX century are from philosophy[25].Indian languages are rich in compounding and this preference is carried over toIE as well. Several new words have been coined and it is very common to findcompounds being constructed instantly. Even in situations where the nativeEnglish preference is to use a phrase, the Indian preference is to use a compound.Compounds can be classified according to category as noun-noun (NN) andadjective-noun (AN). As with other varieties of English, NN compounds are themost productive. Some examples of those acceptable in standard Indian Englishare:NN41black moneyauto-rickshawtable fanceiling fanpedestal fanplate mealsacred threadoutstationchequehill stationsoapnutblouse-piecepass percentagegod-womankitty partyANtall claimjoining reportcreamy layergazetted officergazetted holiday‘unaccounted money, earnings on which tax is not paid’‘a motorised three-wheeler’‘an electric fan meant to be placed on a table’‘an electric fan meant to be fixed to the ceiling’‘an electric fan mounted on a tall pedestal’‘ a meal with fixed portions of various items’‘strands of thread worn by Hindu men, with religioussignificance’‘a cheque meant for a recipient who lives in a place away fromthe issuer of the cheque’‘a place in the hills which is generally cool in climate’‘a herbal extract used for washing hair’‘a piece of cloth cut to size and sold specifically for getting ablouse stitched’‘the percentage of students who have passed’‘a woman who claims spiritual attainment, and the ability toperform miracles’‘a women’s club of sorts, which meets regularly’‘an exaggerated claim’‘a report given by a person who has joined duty, either at thebeginning of employment or after long leave’‘the economically well-off sections of those who belong tounderprivileged castes’‘a government official of a particular rank’‘officially notified government holiday’Some compounds are used as nouns as well as transitive (noun-verb)compounds:NV42charge-sheetdouble-fry‘an internal list of accusations’, ‘to conduct an inquiry based onthe list of accusations’‘an omelet fried on both sides’, ‘to fry an egg on both sides’The following are compound verbs:steam-cookair-dash‘to steam food’‘to rush by air’Many NN compounds are constructed with a verbal derivative.playback singer/artisteeve-teaserroom coolersolar cookermilk boilerspeed breakercar-lifterchild lifterstone-peltingeve-teasingbooth capturing‘singer who sings for actors in films’‘male who teases a girl’‘electric device which blows cool air’‘cooker powered by solar energy’‘double-walled vessel for boiling milk using steam’‘bump on the road to control speeding’‘car-thief ’‘kidnapper of children’‘throwing stones by a mob by way of protest’‘the act of teasing a girl’‘rigging elections by capturing polling booths’Below are some compounds that are used adjectivally:hydro-poweredself-proclaimedconvent-educatedBombay-based‘powered by hydroelectricity’‘proclaimed by oneself ’‘denoting one who has studied in a convent school’‘denoting one based in Bombay’Again, compounds are the commonest forms among hybrid items. Compoundsin which an Indian word is combined with an English word have enabled theexpansion of vocabulary in Indian English. A detailed analysis of hybridconstructions is seen in Kachru [15]. Some examples of an Indian word in themodifier or left position are:ghat road‘a road through the hills or mountains’43gobar gasHindipop/Indipopiftaar partykirana storebaba suitlathi charge‘gas formed from cow dung’‘fusion of Hindi and popular western music’‘party breaking the fast during Ramadan, in the evening’‘grocery store’‘adult’s dress in reduced form to be worn by little boys’‘caning of demonstrators by police’Some examples of an Indian word in the head or right position are:discobhangradiscodandiamutton do-piaza‘a Punjabi dance to disco music’‘a Gujarati dance to disco music’‘a dish of lamb with onions’IE is an interesting combination of items that are obsolete or rare in nativevarieties of English and those items that are very recent and would be consideredcolloquial in native varieties. For example, cod-piece is used in IE in the sense of‘loincloth’. At the same time words like majorly (in all its senses) or cool (in thesense of fashionable), which are relatively recent and colloquial, have alreadyfound their way into IE. An example of older usage is dickey which meant ‘a seatin the back of a carriage for servants’ in earlier BE. It is now used with themodified meaning in IE of ‘a boot of a car’. The extent to which some of the wordsin IE are relics of earlier BE or are innovations needs to be examined in greatdetail.2.3 Phonetic variability of territorial and social dialects of the EnglishlanguageOne of the main features of the modern territorial English dialects is theirconservatism. Certain deviations from the literary standard are mostly due not tothe evolution, but to the lack of evolution: in each dialect there still are manylinguistic phenomena of the different periods in the history of the language andvarious foreign influence – Skandinavian, Norman, etc.44Another peculiarity of modern English dialects is their variance at all levels(phonetics, grammar, and especially the vocabulary).Synchronic phonetic system of modern English dialects is directly conditionedby the specificity of its historical development in a particular area, by mutualcontacts of the dialects, by the influence of language features of the winner-language on the defeated language or absence of such influence. If in some areas(especially Southern) pronunciation of certain sounds and sound combinationscoincides with the literary standard, in other areas it is possible to note significantdifferences compared with a national language – the pronunciation of individualsounds in the English dialects in some cases not only differs from the standard, butis also differentiated by territories.The basic phonetic differences between dialects from the literary standardconsist in the quantitative characteristics, quality and performance of individualsounds. The pronunciation of the sounds which are not pronounced in the literaryversion is often a characteristic of dialects. On the other hand, many of the sounds,pronounced in the literary version, are omitted in dialects. The use of parasiticsounds in the word, epenthesis, exchange of the consonants, dissimilation is quitetypical. Below you will see some specific features of dialectal usage of vowels andconsonants with their combination in different positions in the word.a) VocalismIn Scotland, Ulster, Northumberland, Durham, Cumberland, Yorkshire,Lancashire, Oxfordshire, Bedfordshire, Leicestershire a in a closed syllable isreflected as long [a:] in such words of the literary language as father, alms, dark.Examples include words: lad [la:d], sad [sa:d], cat [ca:t].In South Lancashire, South Worcestershire, South Cheshire, Derbyshire,Hertfordshire, East Suffolk, Gloucestershire a in the same position is recorded as[o], especially before m, n: apple [opl], lad [lod], back [bok], man [mon].Combination a+k is not different in pronunciation from the literary one.However, in South Lancashire, West and South-West Yorkshire region, North45Darbishire the vowel of this combination is pronounced as a diphthong [ai] or [ei]:back [beik] or [baik], black [bleik] or [blaik].a before sh in closed syllables is recognized as [ai] in the East Devon, SouthLancashire, West Wiltshire, Somersetshire, West Yorkshire: ash [aish]. In Mid-Lancashire a in the same position is implemented as [oi]: wash [woish]. In theNorth-West Lancashire, North-West Yorkshire, North Darbishire, North-WestWiltshire a before sh is recognized as [ei], and in Edinburgh, Leicestershire,Somersetshire, East Devonshire, Kent, Sussex as long [a:]. In East and Mid-Wiltshire in the same cases we may find diphthong [ei].The pronunciation of a+nd in the dialects in most cases does not differ from theliterary one.