The German and English alphabets

Реферат по дисциплине "Hystory of English language", в работе рассмотрена проблема изменения алфавита современного английского языка в ходе эволюции, а также формирование алфавитов нескольких языков германской группы. Защищен в мае 2015 года, место защиты - Донской государственный технический университет, кафедра - Мировые языки и культуры, оценка -отлично. ...

The oldest runic alphabet consists of 24 sings (18 consonants and 6 vowels). The first letters of the alphabet is f, u, ю, a, r, k, so it is called Futhark. Each letter of the runic alphabet has a name and a value.
There are three types of runic alphabet:
 all-German runes ( older runes)
 Scandinavian runes (younger runes)
 Anglo-Saxon runes (28-33 signs).
Differences between older and younger runes includes also differences destination: older used mainly for magical purposes.

English is the most widely used language in the world nowadays. As a part of Germanic languages, it is now spoken on six continents. Countries, which use English as a first language, include Great Britain, the USA, Canada, Australia, New Zealand and many other sovereign states.

Runic writing.Runes were very common in the north of Scandinavia and Britain on the peninsula, starting from the II century BC and ending with the beginning of the XVII century. It is in these countries are found ancient runic inscriptions on stones. The oldest of the runic inscriptions discovered by archaeologists (written monument - is any inscription on the stone, helmet, sword hilt, etc.) is the inscription on the helmet from southern Styria (Austria Province) I century AD. The oldest runic inscriptions in Sweden are Kyulverskaya plate on the island of Gotland, stone Moybro in Uppland, stone Istabi in the province of Blekinge. The origin of the runes was made in the XVI century. Only in the XIX century Danish scientist Wimmer proved that the runes date back to the southern European Writing Mediterranean (Greek, Italic, the Latin alphabet), but the alphabet which includes these runes could not be established. Specifically identify the source of runic script is difficult for the reason that the southern European alphabets have much in common. It is possible that Futhark was borrowed from Greek or Etruscan alphabet. This is indicated by the manner of writing - either left to right or from right to left in ancient Greek (III century BC.). Many features indicate that the establishment of the runic alphabet refers to I millennium BC. The oldest runic alphabet consists of 24 sings (18 consonants and 6 vowels). The first letters of the alphabet is f, u, ю, a, r, k, so it is called Futhark. Each letter of the runic alphabet has a name and a value. There are three types of runic alphabet:all-German runes ( older runes) Scandinavian runes (younger runes) Anglo-Saxon runes (28-33 signs). Differences between older and younger runes includes also differences destination: older used mainly for magical purposes. Older Futhark was used up to the IX century. It was used by the Goths, while in the IV century Wolfe has created gothic alphabet. In Scandinavia, 9 letters of the original alphabet disappeared (g, w, ж, ю, z, e, ng, d, o) and there was a new one (R). Varieties of younger runes are Danish and Swedish-Norwegian runes. Runic alphabet fell into decline with the advent of Christianity and the Latin alphabet. In England, he disappears in the IX century, in Scandinavia – XVI. Latin writingDuring the Christianization of the Germanic tribes extends the Latin alphabet. Runic alphabet and writing replaced the Latin script, and many written records created by the Germans have survived to the present time in Latin. The Latin language is spreading as the language of the Church and as an official language. Latin alphabet comes from the Greek alphabet, and in the ancient form, it consists of 20 characters. Because of the small number of letters it was not used to the image of all the sounds that existed in the Germanic languages. Currently, the German language alphabets differ from the Latin alphabet by the number and composition of letters. Gothic writingAlong with the runic and the Latin alphabets there are the Gothic alphabet. Gothic letter is not widespread; it was used only in the Gothic language. The western and northern Germans adopted the Latin alphabet.The beginning of the history of the English languageEnglish language belongs to the western subgroup of Germanic languages. Modern English, the most common of all the Germanic languages, is spoken by over 300 million people. Its three main varieties are British, American and Australian versions.In the history of the English language are three periods: Old English (Anglo-Saxon) period - with the end of the 7th century to the end of the 11th century.Middle English period – 12-15 century.New English period - from the 16th century to the present day. After the departure of the Roman legions that carried the British military protection, Britons (Celtic tribe) were actually protected from external enemies. And there were a lot of enemies: the Picts, Scots (Celts, who lived not conquered the island by the Romans and in Ireland and speaks one of the Celtic dialects), and the North German tribes. Capture of Britain by Germanic tribes - the Angles, Saxons, Frisians and Jutes - turned out to be decisive for its future fate and to the fate of the English language. There were four Anglo-Saxon kingdoms: Northumbria, Wessex, Mercia, Kent. During five centuries (mid-V - the middle of XI century.) These Anglo-Saxon kingdoms fought for domination on the island.By the names of the four major kingdoms were formed four dialects of Old English: NorthumbriaMercianWessexKentWessex dialect had a leading place among the Old English dialects. Since that time we can talk about the formation of the English nation with an original language, history, culture and literature. According to historical sources, the Anglo-Saxons of IX-XI centuries were very different from the Anglo-Saxon of V century - the barbarians, rapists and murderers.At the end of the VI century began the Christianization of Britain, which was held by the missionaries from Rome, the center of the Christian religion, as well as by the Celtic missionaries from Ireland and Scotland. Throughout Britain, it began construction of Christian churches, temples, monasteries; at first wooden and then stone. By the end of VII century Christianity established itself throughout Britain. National English arose at the turn of XIV and XV centuries based on London dialect. The reason for that were the major changes in the social order of England that characterized this period. In this era of in the feudal society there is a new social element - the urban merchant class. The growth in trade and industry, the development of monetary relations were manifestations impending change. These events marked the beginning of liquidation feudal fragmentation followed by the formation of extensive economic links between the different parts of the country. By the end of the XVI century, the process of forming the national English language can be considered complete. The formation of English nation and the English language was at one time. While the language of the English nation was represented only dialects, none of which are operated outside its territory, a national English language began to be used throughout the country. Dialects are used less and less in creating written sources. The national language covers all areas related to the creation of written texts: state documents, scientific literature and fiction. As part of the oral use of the national language functions in all public institutions, and it is everyday language of the educated strata of society, especially people living in the capital of the adjoining areas. In more remote places national language is influenced by local dialects - formed its local orally.