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Chapter 1. Category denial

1.1 Denial of philosophy

The first law of "negation of the negation" in the philosophy of Hegel formulated. He argued his examples from the history of thought. The development of any concepts occurs as a movement from the abstract to the concrete. This process allowed the internal contradiction of the concept. It moves to the stage of its otherness, transforming into something different than it was before. Then it was "back to itself", but in the form of a concrete concept, which contains and its former, abstract essence and the new acquired in the process of self-alienation. In the "Science of Logic" Hegel even described the denial law as the universal form of the unity of contradictions (their transition into each other), and the struggle between them (splitting a whole).
We can say that this is a special form of another dialectical concept. This is a kind of law of the unity and struggle of opposites. But the philosopher limited action dialectic only area of concepts and their formation. After all, for him being and thinking it was a single entity, in which the first is derived from the second. Accordingly, the triad negations is the stage of the global development of the mind. [Gubskiy 1999, 180].

Introduction

As is known, the language - is a historically established system of sound, vocabulary and grammatical means, objectifying the work of thinking and is a tool of communication, exchange of ideas and mutual understanding of people in society.
Every language, including English and German - is a dynamic system, which has its characteristic grammatical system, components of which are the two interconnected sections: morphology and syntax. This paper aims to explore one of the grammatical phenomena such as the syntax section, which considers the words in a sentence, the sentence itself, its structure, features and types. Just paid considerable attention to the morphological and lexical component.

Mair]. negative Unions: neither ... nor, not ... nor , But neither of you knew him as I did [Richard1984, 46]. But none of you knew him as I do. Bondarenko VN In his monograph "The denial of a logical-grammatical category" identifies the following six modes of expression: negative affixes; negative particles; Negative pronouns and adverbs; negative associations; negative prepositions - in some languages ​​postpositions; as well as an implicit way of expressing negation. In the next chapter we will look at the most common means of expression of negation in the English language in their linguistic categories.2.1.2. Negative sentence as a complex semantic unit of the German languageNegation in German is one feature that makes it fundamentally different from the Russian language. While that may be denied any member of the German proposal, and almost every part of speech, denial can be only a single, a double negative in this language is not allowed. For example:Meine Grossmutter ist nie im Ausland gewesen. - My grandmother has never been abroad (denial of one German - two in Russian).Gestern hast du keine Zeitungen gelesen. - Yesterday you did not read any newspapers (one in the denial of the German - two in Russian).Gestern hast du dein Abendbrot nicht gegessen. - Yesterday you did not eat your dinner.Denial in the German language can be expressed through a variety of words and structures with negative value: nein, nicht, kein, niemals, nie, niemand, nichts, weder ... noch etc..Negation in German via Nicht particlesC using nicht particles can be denied verbs; Nouns with the definite article, possessive and demonstrative pronouns; adjectives, participles, pronouns, and so forth. The particle nicht can never occupy the first place in the sentence, and stands in front of the word, which it denies. The only exceptions are the verbs.If the proposal is denied by a simple verbal predicate without detachable top box, the particle nicht occupies the last place in the sentence, for example:Wassermelonen esse ich nicht. - I do not eat watermelons. (Here we simply negated predicate).If the proposal eating verb with separable prefix, the negation nicht holds the second place in the sentence before this prefix, for example:Am bevorstehenden Wettkampf nimmt er nicht teil. - He will not participate in the upcoming competitions.If the proposal eating compound verbal predicate structure with modal verbs, complex temporal form, particle nicht again holds the second place in front of the semantic verb in unchanged form (Infinitiv, Partizip II, etc.), for example:Ich will dieses furchtbare Kleid nicht anziehen. - I do not want to wear that awful dress.Meine Schwester hat diese Nachricht noch nicht gehört. - My sister has not heard the news.In denying the noun with a preposition nicht particle occupies a position directly in front of the pretext, for example:Er ist nicht nach Tokio abgeflogen. Er ist nach Hongkong geflogen. - He flew not in Tokyo. He flew to Hong Kong.In the circumstances of the denial expressed by adverbs, nicht particle occupies a position directly in front of them, for example:Willst du ihn unbedingt heute besuchen? - Nein, ich will ihn nicht unbedingt heute besuchen. (Nein, nicht unbedingt heute). - You want to go to him today? - No, I do not want him to go just now (No, it is not today).If there is a need for the denial of a word in a sentence or part of a sentence, the particle nicht put directly before the word, or the part that is denied. Often in such denial is necessary to indicate there is an alternative way to deny. To specify an alternative, or an explanation in the following sentence, or used construction «nicht ..., sondern» («not ..., a"), for example:Dein Pulli liegt nicht auf dem Stuhl. Er liegt unter deinem Bett. - Your pullover is not on the chair. It lies under your bed.Dein Pulli liegt nicht im Schrank, sondern unter dem Sofa. - Your pullover is not in the closet and under the bed.If denied adjective or participle, the particle nicht stands in front of them, for example:Unser nicht sehr höflicher Begleiter ist plötzlich verschwunden. - Our not very courteous attendant suddenly disappeared.Das Klima in eurer Gegend ist nicht schön. - The climate in your area is not good.Warum ziehst du immer die nicht gebügelten Kleider an? - Why do you always wear dresses neglazhenye?Negation in German via KeinDenial kein replaces zero or indefinite article before the noun and declined in the same way as the indefinite article. Consider the example of the decline kein noun "lie - die Lüge», «motto - das Motto», «a thief - der Dieb», «hedgehogs - die Igel»:KasusNominativGenitivDativAkkusativFemininumkeine Lügekeiner Lügekeiner Lügekeine LügeNeutrumkein Mottokeines Mottoskeinem Mottokein MottoMaskulinumkein Diebkeines Diebeskeinem Diebkeinen DiebPluralkeine Igelkeiner Igelkeinen Igelnkeine IgelFor example:Zuerst habe ich gedacht, dass es eine Blume war. Das war aber keine Blume. - At first I thought it was a flower. But it was not a flower.Wir haben keine Sauna auf der Datscha. - We do not have a sauna in the country.Trinkst du Rosewein? - Nein, ich trinke keinen Rosewein. - You drink pink wine? -No, I do not drink pink wine.Negation in German through a variety of negative wordsNegative word NEIN = no negation is used for the entire sentence as a whole. NEIN single word can serve as a separate proposal, which is a brief negative answer to any question. For example:Bist du ein Dolmetscher? - Nein. (Ich bin kein Dolmetscher). - You're a translator? - No. (I'm not a translator).Ist er mit einem Schnellzug angekommen? - Nein. (Er ist nicht mit einem Schnellzug angekommen). - He arrived on the orient express? - No. (He did not arrive on the orient express).Negative word Niemand = no one is to deny the person and is the antonym for jemand (someone), for example:Hat jemand meinen neuen Kugelschreiber gesehen? - Nein, niemand hat deinen neuen Kugelschreiber gesehen. - Has anyone seen my new ballpoint pen? - No, no one saw your new ballpoint pen.Negative word nichts = none is used to negate any subject amount. For example:Habt ihr wenigstens etwas behalten? - Nein, wir haben nichts behalten. - Have you ever remember anything? - No, we do not remember.Negative word Nirgends = Nirgendwo = nowhere used to deny the location (place of circumstances). For example:Wo sind sie am letzten Wochenende gewesen? - Sie sind nirgends gewesen. - Where were they at the weekend? - Anywhere they were not.Negative word Nie = Niemals = never used to negate the time. For example:Wir sind noch nie in Australien gewesen. - We've never been to Australia.Allied construction by negation meaning in German «Weder ... noch» - «no ... no":Heute habe ich weder Fenster im Kinderzimmer noch die in unserem Schlafzimmer gewaschen. - Today I washed the windows or in the children's room, no window in the bedroom.«Ohne ... zu» - «not satisfied, do not do anything":Heute habe ich Fleisch überbacken, ohne es eingespickt zu haben. - Today I baked meat, not laced with it.Funds held in the German language to deny anything, not limited only to negative words. There are also all sorts of language opportunities for expression of negation: suffixes and prefixes with the negation of values, the use of words in the lexical meaning of which is incorporated initially denial, the use of the subjunctive with the unreal value, denying the possibility of any action. For example:Suffixes with a negative value:-frei: «perfect, perfect - einwandfrei»-los: «unintentional, Incidental - absichtslos» / «a deliberate, premeditated- absichtlich»Consoles with a negative value:un-: «irregular - unregelmässig» / «regular - regelmässig»de-: «Assembling - die Montage» / «demolition, dismantling - die Demontage»miss-: «suspect untrusted - misstrauen» / «to trust, to believe - trauen» Word includes a built-in semantics of negation:"Hate - hassen»"Listen, hear - überhören», etc.The subjunctive mood with unreality pledged action to deny the possibility of what is happening:Wenn ich du wäre, könnte das nicht passieren. - If I were in your place, this would not have happened.2.2.1 Expressions of negation in language categories in EnglishMorphological methods of expression of negation in English refers affixation provided by prefixing and suffixing. In word-formation processes in English, occupy a special position. First of all, they generally do not form new speech units, the same prefix may constitute new words, and from different parts of speech. The newly formed words remain the same part of speech, from which they are formed, for example:common (ordinary) - uncommon (extraordinary)grateful (thankful) - ungrateful (thankless)satisfactory (satisfactory) – unsatisfactory (unsatisfactory)trained (educated) - untrained (untrained)ability (ability) - disability (disability)approval (approval) - disapproval (disapproval)trust (trust) - distrust (distrust)responsible (responsible) - irresponsible (irresponsible)The most extensive group of prefixes in English - prefixes otitsatelnogo values. Let us examine them in detail.• The prefix un- is found in various forms in many Indo-European languages. In modern English it is preserved in the form in which it was used in Old English.This is a very productive prefix and easily forms new words from different parts of speech:ungrateful (thankless)unwritten (unwritten)unemployment (unemployment)unhumanly (inhuman)Most often, this prefix is ​​found in adjectives and adverbs, for example:The only thing that makes me unhappy is that I'm making you unhappy[Graham 1976, 49].The only thing that makes me unhappy is that I do have an accident.Oh, Freda, that was unforgivable [Richard1984, 26].Oh, Fred, it was inexcusable.I think that's unfair and also rather stupid and affected [Richard1984, 25].I think it is unfair, and quite stupid and unnatural.Just as with the negative particle not- words prefixed with un- express not simply a denial and a new quality, a new feature:wise - it is "wise, wise" and unwise has a different meaning (unreasonable) and approaches the foolish (stupid, foolish, irrational). The word has a rather unhappy miserable value (pitiful, poor). Normally antonyms of adjectives are formed with un- un- using, with the suffix less-, for example:careful - careless (uncareful)hopeful - hopeless (unhopeful)thoughtful - thoughtless (unthoughtful)The barometer is useless: it is as misleading as the newspaper forecast [Richard1984, 70].The barometer is useless: it is as misleading as the newspaper forecast.Frankie listened breathlessly. His hand looked lifeless and pale. [Graham 1976, 26].Frankie listened with bated breath. His hand looked lifeless and pale.• The prefix in- Latin origin, akin to the German prefix un-, appeared in the loan words from French:IncorrectIndifferentInnumerableInactiveThe prefix in- does variants il-, im-, ir-; il- words starting with l-, im- words starting with p-, b-, m-, and ir- words starting with r-, eg:IllegalIlliterateImmotileIrresponsibleImposibleSome words in this case are subject to semantic shifts, such as "infamous" - "shameful."She had met innumerable people of all kinds and I think she summed them up shrewdly enough according to the standards of the small Virginian town where she was born and bred [Graham 1976, 78].She met countless different people, and I think it has assessed them quite sober in accordance with the standards of a small town in Virginia, where she was born and raised.He'd have invented the most extravagant and incredible sins to confess to[Richard1984, 32].He could invent the most extravagant and improbable sins, to repent of them.Must you talk in that awful dry inhuman way? [Richard1984, 38].Should you say such a terrible dry and inhuman ob-time?Not was indefatigable [Graham 1976, 8].He was indefatigable.• The prefix mis--German origin. It often forms derived from verbal stems, eg:MistrustMiscreditMiscalculateMisfitMisguideSome words are the words of the negativity, and the other - "wrong" action expression:miscalculate - mistakes in the calculation ("wrong")mistrust - mistrust ("negative").I have never begun a novel with more misgiving [Graham 1976, 3].I never started an affair with more confidence.The barometer is useless: it is as misleading as the newspaper forecast [Richard1984, 70].The barometer is useless: it is as misleading as the newspaper forecast.• The prefix dis- Latin origin, appeared in English in the Middle English period, as part of the borrowed French words:DisarmDiscoverDisdainDisfigureDisguiseLike most word-forming elements are not native English origin prefix dis- as a means of education of English words I began to be used as the basics of French origin, and with the basics of English. This forms a prefix derived from the basics of nouns, verbs, adjectives:I do not want the reader to think I am making a mystery of whatever it was that happened to Larry during the war that so profoundly affected him, a mystery that I shall disclose at a convenient moment [Graham 1976, 52].I do not want the reader to think that I have made no secret of what else, what happened to Larry during the war, which is so deeply shocked him, a secret that I will reveal at the right moment.When critics disagree the artist is in accord with himself [Wild 1979, 19].When critics do not get along, the artist is in accord with them.As a matter of fact, to be absolutely candid, I rather disliked him [Richard1984, 23].In fact, to be perfectly honest, I do not like.Not tried to amuse himself with them, but he really distrusted them, disliked them [PJ, p.27].He tried to pass the time with them, but in fact he did not trust them, they did not please him.She is distressed now and trifle incoherent [Richard1984, 41].She is concerned about now is slightly inconsistent.Francesca disarranged the bed [Richard1984, 40].Francesca brought a bed in a mess.The value of the prefix, or rather the value obtained derivative of the word with the prefix - the quality of the denial, the characteristic or action expressed based on derivatives of the word.• The prefix anti- Greek origin, he is more than the listed prefixes retains its lexical meaning - 'against'. This prefix has appeared only in the New England period, its use is limited to literary and book-style speech. It is most commonly found in the words that express the socio-political and scientific concepts: antifascist, anticyclone, anticlimax, antithesis. Some independent significance of the prefix affects and graphic design derivative words, many of these derivatives are hyphenated: anti-social, anti-aircraft, anti-Jacobin etc.• Prefix counter - Latin origin, as well as anti- retains its lexical meaning, so some researchers call it the prepositional prefix. He appeared in the Middle English period, as part of the borrowed French words. Meaning it is about the same as that of the anti- ie against. The use of the prefix is ​​limited to literary and book-style speech. The most common in political literature, its independence is maintained hyphenated: counter-act, counter-balance, counter-poise, counter-move.So, we can draw the following conclusions: in the presence of negative prefixes and suffixes most significant negative affixes constitute the prefixes. Many researchers say that the compatibility of the negative affixes to the basics of the different parts of speech varies both from one language to another, and within the same language.When names and adjectives (rarely) nouns often used prefix un- (homonym verb un-), non-, in- (im-, il-, ir-, dis-, mis-. The closest in meaning are the prefixes un- , pop, in-, as evidenced by the existence of word doublets, differ little from each other by their values:nonprofessional - unprofessional unprofessional,inacceptable - unacceptable unacceptable.Thus, the negative affixes in English are attached only to the name of the basics. Verb as a basis with negative affixes can not be combined, for verbal denial is transmitted in the language of the analytical form of the verb not a particle.We have considered the means of expression of a negative value on the level of morphology. As it turned out, denying the value can be transmitted by means of prefixes. The following will focus on lexical tools that convey negative values ​​are negative verbs, nouns, adverbs, pronouns.2.2.2 Classification of negative language means in GermanIn modern German language there is a huge number of different linguistic means to express negation.For negation of the content of a statement or part of the modern German language there are different possibilities:1) the use of words-denials;2) the use of negative prefixes and suffixes;3) the use of the special allied words;4) the use of verbs, adjectives and nouns with a negative value;5) the use of conditional sentences and unrealistic predlozheny expressing the impossible desire.Denial can be distributed as all the content you-utterance, t. E. On the whole sentence, and the part of the sentence, a word or even a part of a word. In the first case we speak about the general denial or complete denial, in other cases - a partial negation.Die Gste kommen heute nicht, (complete denial).Die Gste kommen nicht heute, (partial negation).Die Gste reisen heute nicht an, sondern ab. (Partial otritsanie)One of the possible ways of expressing negation, upomyanutye above paragraphs. 1-5, are used for both the full and the partial denial, while others - only for partial otritsaniya.For the modern German language, unlike Russian harakterno that one (simple) sentence (without homogeneous members), only one negative element is possible, compare:I've never seen this man.Ich habe diesen Menschen noch nie gesehen.I have never seen him or his brother.Ich habe niemals ihn oder seinen Bruder gesehen. Or:Ich habe weder ihn noch seinen Bruder jemals gesehen.I never with anybody about it did not.Ich habe mit keinem jemals darber gesprochen. Or:Ich habe niemals mit jemand darber gesprochen.I never let anyone about anything not asked.Ich habe (noch) nie jemand um etwas gebeten.Double, or more precisely, the repeated denial in a German sentence, is found only in special cases:a) for expressive denial of possible repetition of the same or denying the existence of a variety of negatives in odnom sentence, for example:Und keiner, keiner konnte ihr helfen! Nie und nimmer hat sie das gesagt! Schweig, nichts, kein Wort!b) by denying the homogeneous parts of the sentence, for example: Sie konnte vor Schreck nicht sprechen, berhaupt nicht reagieren. Kein Streicheln, kein trostreiches Wort und keine Liebkosung konnten sie beruhigen.c) if nein denial (see also paragraph 2.1.2), for example:.. Hast du meine Bitte vergessen? Nein, ich habe sie nicht vergessen.g) sometimes because of stylistic reasons can be upotrebleny two negatives, but taken together, they do not express otritsaniya, but rather, cautious statement (see section 8.1), for example..:Dieser Film ist nicht uninteressant, which means that the speaker believes the film is quite interesting.Dieses Unternehmen ist nicht ohne Risiko, meaning: it is associated with some risk.Er teilte das ohne innere Unruhe mit, oznachaes that he reported it without emotion.On the intonation in the sentences containing negation, we can say the following: intonation (.. That is, the division into bars speech, phrase accent, tone, movement, tempo) in sentences of this type is subject to the general rules of intonation in German. As always, be aware of pronunciation style of speech (ie full or spoken)Greater or lesser emotional speech, and the degree of information carried by one or drugoe word in a sentence.When calm (unemotional) speech word-denial, usually unstressed.Only negation kein can receive a strong accent, if it is used as the subject or samostoyatelno addition:Keiner war gekommen.Mit 'keinem von ihnen hatte er gesprochen.Er hat gestern 'keinen seiner Freunde getroffen.